Africa. An encyclopedia for students. Abidjan - Economy [PDF] [7a0cibpc41c0] (2023)

This book provides a comprehensive overview of the African continent and the countries that make it up, describing its peoples and cultures, music and art, trade and economy, holidays and festivals, tribal groups, ecology, religion, fossil and skeletal finds, the Country and its history, art and architecture and daily life. It examines Africa from prehistory to the present day.

Africa An encyclopedia for students

GEOPOLITICAL

TUNISIA MOROCCO ALGERIA LIBYA EGYPT

WESTERN SAHARA

MAURITANIA

MALI-NIGER

SENEGAL

SUDAN

CHAD

ERITREA

GAMBIA

Disappointed

BURKINA FASO

GUINEA-BISSAU

BENIN

NIGERIA SOMALIA

GUINEA SIERRA LEONE LIBERIA

IVORY COAST

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

GHANA TOGO

ETHIOPIA

CAMEROON

ÄQUITORIALGUINEA ̃ TOME AND SAO PRINCIPE

UGANDA

Gabon

KENYA

RWANDA 19,341 ft.

CONGO (Kinshasa) BURUNDI

KONGO (Brazzaville)

TANZANIA

Komoren

RAISES OVER 1,640 FEET ANGOLA

MALAWI

ZAMBIA MOZAMBIQUE ZIMBABWE

NAMIBIA

MADAGASCAR BOTSUANA SWAZILAND

ENGLISH

SOUTH AFRICA

Africa An Encyclopedia for Students John Middleton, Editor

Volume 1 Abidjan Economy

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Copyright © 2002 Charles Scribner's Sons All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from Charles Scribner's Sons. Developed for Charles Scribner's Sons by Visual Education Corporation, Princeton, N.J. For Scribners PUBLISHER: Karen Day EDITORS: John Fitzpatrick, Brad Morgan COVER AND INTERIOR DESIGN: Jennifer Wahi PHOTO RESEARCH: Kelly Quin PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT: Mary Beth Trimper For Visual Education PROJECT LEADER: Darryl Kestler WRITER: John Haley, Charles Roebuck, Rebecca Stefoff, Joseph Ziegler EDITORS: Noëlle Y. Child, Cindy George, Guy Austrian, Charles Roebuck Gratton, Kevin van Bladel, Frank Griffel, Jeremy Raphael Berndt

Library of Congress Cataloging In-Publication Data Africa: an Encyclopedia for Students / John Middleton, Editor. P. cm Includes references and index. ISBN 0-684-80650-9 (Set: alc. paper) — ISBN 0-684-80651-7 (V. 1) — ISBN 0-684-80652-5 (V. 2) — ISBN 0-684-80653 -3 (v. 3) — ISBN 0-684-80654-1 (v. 4) 1. Africa–Encyclopedias, Juvenile. [1. Africa—Encyclopedias.] I. Middleton, John, 1921—DT3 .A249 2001 960'03—dc21 2001049348

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Table of Contents Map Index Volume 1 Algeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Angola. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Archeology of North and West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Archeology of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Benin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Botswana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Burkina Faso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Central African Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Colonialism in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Congo (Kinshasa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Volume 2 Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Gabon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 guineas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 origins of modern man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Ivory Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Band 3 Liberia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Libya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

mali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Mauritania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Minerals and Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Nile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Trade Routes and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Rwanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Volume 4 Senegal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Sierra Leone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Sudanic Empires 1200–1600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Early Travels and Explorations in Europe . . . . . . . . 112 Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 National Parks and Wildlife Refuges . . . . 147 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Color plates volume 1

Band 3

peoples and cultures

art and architecture

Band 2

Band 4

The country and its history

Everyday

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Table of contents

Band 1 Vorwort A Time Line of Africa

A Abidjan Accra Achebe, China Addis Abeba Africa, Study of Afrikaner Republics Age and Aging Agriculture AIDS Akan Region Aksum Alexandria Algeria Algiers Amhara Amin Dada, Idi Angola Animals, Domestic Annan, Kofi Antananarivo Apartheid Arabs in Africa Archeology and Prehistory Architecture Art Asante Asantewa, O Askiya Muhammad I Asma'u, Growers of the Atlas Mountains record him, Benjamin Nnamdi

B Bambara Banda, Ngwazi Hastings Kamuzu Bantu Peoples Barghash ibn Sa’id Barth, Heinrich

Bello, Ahmadu Ben Bella, Ahmed Benin Benin City Berbers Beti, Mongo Biko, Steve Blyden, Edward Wilmot Body Jewelry and Clothing Bokassa, Jean-Bédel Bornu Botswana Boumediene, Houari Boundaries in Africa Faso Burton, Sir Richard Francis Burundi Busia, Kofi A.

C Cabinda Cabral, Amílcar Lopes Cairo Calendar and Time Camara Laye Cameroon Canary Islands Cape Black People Cape Town Cape Verde Carthage Central African Federation Central African Republic Cetshwayo Chad Childhood and youth Chilembwe, John Chinese in Africa Christianity in Africa

Cinema cities and urbanization Class structure and caste Cleopatra Climate Coetzee, J. M. Colenso, John William Colonialism in Africa Comoros Conakry Congo (Brazzaville) Congo (Kinshasa) Congo River Copts Correia, Mãe Aurélia Crafts Creoles Crowther, Samuel Ajayi

The Dakar Dance Dar es Salaam Death, Mourning, and Ancestors De Klerk, Frederik Willem Deserts and During Development, Economic and Social Diagne, Blaise Diaspora, African Dingiswayo Diop, Alioune Diop, Cheikh Anta Diseases Divination and Oracles Djibouti Du Bois, W. E. B.

E Éboué, Index of Economic History by Adolphe-Félix-Sylvestre

Volume 2 A Timeline of Africa

E (CONTINUED) Ecosystem formation

Egypt, Ancient Egypt, Modern Ekwensi, Cyprian Emin Pasha Energy and Energy Resources

Equatorial Guinea Equiano, Olaudah Eritrea Ethiopia Ethiopian Orthodox Church

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Table of Contents Ethnic Groups and Identity Ethnic Groups and Peoples European Communities

Fanon Family, Frantz Fasiladas Festivals and Carnivals Fishing Eating and Drinking Forests and Forestry Freetown French Equatorial Africa French West Africa Fugard, Athol Fulani

Haile Selassie I Harare Hassan II Hausa Head, Bessie Healing and Medicine Health Care Herero History of Africa Horton, James Africanus Houphouët-Boigny, Félix Houses and Housing Human Rights Humans, Early Hunger and Famine Jagen und Sammeln

Kabarega Kadalie, Clements Kagwa, Apollo Kalahari Desert Kanemi, Muhammad al-Amin al-Kaunda, Kenneth Kenya Kenyatta, Jomo Khama III und Seretse Khama Khartoum, Simon Kimpa Vita Kings und Kingship Kingsley, Mary Henrietta Kinshasa Kinship Kongo Kourouma, Ahmadou Kruger, Paul

Gabon Galawdewos Gama, Vasco da Gambia, The Garvey, Marcus Mosiah Gender Roles and Sexuality Genocide and Violence Ghana Gikuyu Global Politics and Africa Gordimer, Nadine Gordon, Charles George Government and Political Systems Guinea Guinea-Bissau

Ibadan Ibn Battuta Igbo Independence movements Indian communities Initiation rites Irrigation and flood control Islam in Africa Ivory Coast Ivory trade

J Johannesburg Johnson, Samuel Judentum in Africa

L La Guma, Alex Labor Lagos Land Ownership Languages Laws and Legal Systems Index

Volume 3 A Timeline of Africa

L (CONTINUED) Leakey Family Lebanese Communities Lenshina, Alice Leo Africanus Lesotho Liberia Libya Literacy Literature Livestock Livingstone, David Lobengula Lugard, Frederick John Dealtry

Lumumba, Patrice Emery Luo Lusaka Lutuli (Luthuli), Albert

M Maasai Macaulay, Herbert Samuel Heelas Machel, Samora Moises Madagaskar Maghreb Mahdi, alMaherero, Samuel Mahfouz, Naguib Water Water Malawi

Mali Mami Wata Mandela, Nelson Mansa Musa Mansur, Maps and Cartmaking Designer, John Markets Equipment Masks and Masks Mau Mau Mauritania Mauritius Mboya, Tom Mengistu Haile Mariam Menilek II

vii

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Inhaltsverzeichnis Meroë Minerals and Mining Missions and Missionaries Mobutu Sese Seko Mogadischu Moi, Daniel arap Mondlane, Eduardo Chivambo Money and Banking Morocco Moshoeshoe I Mossi Mozambique Mubarak, Hosni Mugabe, Robert Muhammad V Museveni, Yoweri Music and Song Musical Instruments Mutapa Mutesa II, Frederick Mvemba Nzinga Mythology Mzilikazi

N Nairobi Namibia Nasser, Gamal Abdel Nationalismus Ndebele Negritude Neokolonialismus

Neto, Augustinho Ngugi wa Thiong'o Niger Niger and Delta Nigeria Nile and Delta Nkrumah, Kwame Nongqawuse North Africa: Geography and Population North Africa: History and Cultures Nubia Nujoma, Samuel Shafiishuna Numeral Systems Nwapa, Flora Nyerere, Julius Kambarage

Plaatje, Sol Plantation Systems Plants: Varieties and Uses Popular Culture Population Prempeh, Agyeman Prophetic Movements Proverbs and Riddles Publishing Pygmies Pyramids

Obote, Milton Olympio, Sylvanus Epiphanio Oral Tradition Organization of African Unity Osei Tutu

P Paton, Alan Peasantry and Land Settlement Pereira, Aristides Maria Pests and Pest Control Pharaohs Photography

Q Gaddafi, Muammar alQuaque, Philip Queens und Queen Mothers

Radama I Radio and TV Ranavalona, Mada Rawlings, Jerry Refugees Religion and Ritual Réunion Rhodes, Cecil John Rock Art Roman Africa Rwanda Index

Volume 4 A Timeline of Africa

S Sadat, Anwar Sahara Desert Sahel Sa’id ibn Sultan Saint Helena Samba, Dear Sao Tome and Prince Sarbah, John Mensah Schreiner, Olive Secret Societies Seven, Ousmane Senegal Senghor, Leopold Cedar Seychelles Shaaban Robert Shaka Zulu

VIII

Shembe, Isaiah Shona Sierra Leone Slave Trade Slavery Smuts, Jan Christiaan Sobhuza I and II Somalia South Africa South Africa, History Soyinka, Wole Spirit Possession Sports and Leisure Stanley, Henry Morton Sudan Sudanese Empires of West Africa Suez Canal Sufism Sufism Sundjata Keïta

Sunnit Ali Susenyos Suaheli Swasiland

Click Download to save T Taboo And Sin Tafawa Balewa - Abubakar Tanzania Tewodros Theater Thuku mp3 youtube com

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Table of Contents Tourism Trade Transport Travel and Exploration Tribalism Tshombe, Moïse Kapenda Tuareg Tubman, William Vacanarat Shadrach Tunisia Tutu, Desmond Mpilo Tutuola, Amos

U Uganda Umar ibn Sa’id Tal Unions and Trade Associations

United Nations in Africa Uthman and Fodio

Writing Systems of the First and Second World Wars

X, Y, Z

Van Riebeeck, Jan Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch Vodun

W Warfare West African trading settlements Wilderness and wildlife parks of Western Sahara Witbooi, Hendrik Witchcraft and Sorcery Wolof Women in Africa

Xhosa Yoruba Zambezi Zambia Zanzibar Zara Ya'iqob Zimbabwe Zulu Recommended Reading Photo Credits Index

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Preface It is always a challenge to understand areas outside of our own corner of the world. This is especially true in Africa, a vast continent with a complex web of indigenous cultures. But Africans make up one-fifth of the world's population, and the continent sits at the crossroads of America, Europe and the Middle East. What is happening in Africa affects us all. Additionally, North America's ties to Africa date back many centuries - first as a partner in the Atlantic slave trade and later as an ally of the European colonial powers that ruled Africa. The slave trade has had a lasting impact on the history of North America and Africa. It brought millions of Africans to this side of the Atlantic as slaves and formed the basis of the black population in America. At the same time, the slave trade divided Africa and deprived generations of young people who would have played a productive role in society. A great deal of material about Africa - in textbooks, newspapers, novels and films - is superficial, biased or even fabricated. Most of it appears in bits and pieces rather than part of a comprehensive examination of the region. This work, Africa: An Encyclopedia for Students, offers a more coherent picture of the continent. Throughout its pages, Africa emerges as a single continent with unique geographic features, a continuous, interconnected history, and similar economic, political, and social problems. The scope of the encyclopedia. In its four volumes, Africa: An Encyclopedia for Students offers both a comprehensive and a fairly detailed overview of Africa's land and peoples - from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean. Although it is not possible to cover all aspects of the continent in detail in fewer than 1,000 pages, the work combines a great deal of important information and careful analysis. The student encyclopedia is based on the four-volume Encyclopedia of Africa South of the Sahara,

Published in 1997, of which I was the editor-in-chief. The original work contains 896 articles by geographers, historians, anthropologists, linguists, philosophers and other experts from Europe, North America and Africa. In the past, most scientific research on the continent was done by non-Africans. However, scholars from Africa are now playing a leading role in this area. Africans tend to see their continent in one way, while foreigners have different perspectives. Combining these different images of Africa brings us closer to understanding the continent. Africa: A Pupil's Encyclopedia covers much of the same area as the earlier work at a level suitable for junior high and high school students. Many of the original articles have been adapted and updated, and a significant amount of new material on North Africa has been added. In addition to articles on standard subjects such as countries, cities, and historical figures, the student encyclopedia contains entries on broad areas of knowledge, ranging from human origins to music and song, from colonialism to marital systems, and from slavery to food and drink. All articles are arranged alphabetically to make it easier for students to find information. Features of the encyclopedia. Next to the text column on the pages of Africa: A Student's Encyclopedia is a side column with helpful features. There readers will find timelines that put events in historical context, sidebars with interesting information on a variety of topics, and definitions of difficult or unfamiliar words used in the text. Cross-references to related articles appear both within the text and at the end of entries. Fact sheets accompany each country article and provide key data about the country's people, geography, government and economy in a convenient format. The illustrations in the student dictionary bring the people and places discussed in the entries to life. Each volume has special full color inserts

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Foreword on the topics peoples and cultures, the country and its history, art and architecture as well as everyday life. The encyclopedia also contains more than 50 maps of modern nations, ancient kingdoms and colonial empires, trade routes and various geographical features. The original Sub-Saharan Africa Encyclopedia took six years to create, and Africa: A Student Encyclopedia has taken nearly two more.

No single editor can do everything, and I want to thank publisher Karen Day and managing editor John Fitzpatrick of Charles Scribner's Sons; Visual Education Corporation's Darryl Kestler; and the many members of her staff. I also thank the authors and the members of the original Boards of Associate Editors, Advisors, and Consultants. This new student encyclopedia was largely a community effort. John Middleton, editor

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A Time Line of Africa 4 M.y.a.*

Australopithecines (early hominids) live in the northern Rift Valley (Ethiopia, Kenya).

2.5 million years*

Early Stone Age; Homo habilis appears (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania).

1.5 years old* - 150,000 BC

An erect man appears.

240.000 – 40.000 v. Chr.

Mesolithic.

80.000– 20.000 v. Chr.

late stone age.

20.000– 10.000 v. Chr.

Agriculture introduced in the lower Nile valley.

10.000– 6000 v. Chr.

Cattle domesticated in North Africa. Millet and sorghum grown in West Africa.

6000– 5000 v. Chr.

Khoisan hunters in southern Africa create rock paintings.

3000 B.C.E.

King Menes unites Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. Agriculture is developing in the Ethiopian highlands.

2000–1000 v. Chr.

Horses introduced in the Sahara region. Bananas from Central Africa.

332 v. Chr.

Greeks occupy Egypt.

200 v. Chr.

The Romans gain control of Carthage.

32 v. Chr.

The royal city of Meroë thrives in present-day Sudan.

ADVERTISEMENT.

Aksum invades Meroë; King Aksum adopts Coptic Christianity.

300er

530er

Byzantine Empire conquers Mediterranean ports.

600er

Muslim Arabs invade North Africa.

ca. 1000

Shona begins building Great Zimbabwe.

1200er

Portuguese voyage to the northwest coast of Africa. Sundjata Keïta founds the Kingdom of Mali.

*m.y.a. million years ago

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1312–1337

Mansa Musa rules Mali and makes a pilgrimage to Mecca.

1400er

The Kingdom of Benin is flourishing.

1498

Vasco da Gama sails around the southern and eastern coasts of Africa on his way to India.

1505–1510

Portuguese conquer Swahili towns in East Africa and fortify Mozambique. Congo King Afonso I converts to Christianity.

1517

Ottoman Turks conquer Egypt and Mediterranean port cities.

1578

Moroccans defeat Portuguese and remain free from colonial control.

1591

Al-Mansur invades Songhai.

1600er

The French, English and Dutch set up trading posts along the west coast to export gold, ivory and slaves. Akan state emerges.

1650er

Dutch settle at the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. Arab traders settle on the East African coast.

1700er

French and British set up slave trade network in Central Africa. Zanzibar is thriving as an Arab trading center.

1721

French colonize Mauritius.

1787

British missionaries found Sierra Leone.

1795

The British conquer the Cape Colony from the Dutch.

1798

Napoleon leads the French invasion of Egypt.

1805

Muhammad Ali takes power in Egypt and frees himself from Ottoman control.

1807

Britain and the United States abolish the slave trade.

1817

Shaka becomes the head of the Zulu kingdom in southern Africa.

1821

Freed slaves from the United States settle in present-day Liberia.

1828

Queen Ranavalona ascends the throne in Madagascar.

1830er

French rule in Algeria proclaimed. In West Africa, the slave trade continues.

1835

Dutch settlers in southern Africa move north in "Great Trek".

1840–1880

The slave trade is thriving in East Africa.

1847

The Republic of Liberia is founded.

1852–1873

David Livingstone explores Central and East Africa.

1858

Portuguese abolish slavery in Central Africa.

xiii

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1855–1868

Emperor Tewodros rules Ethiopia.

1859–1869

The Suez Canal is built.

1869

Diamonds are discovered in Kimberley in the northern Cape Colony.

1880–1881

Africans rebel against Britain in the First Anglo-Boer War and the British withdraw from the Transvaal in southern Africa.

1885

Mahdist troops conquer Khartoum.

1880s-early 1900s

European powers colonized most of Africa (present-day names of countries listed): Belgians in Congo (Kinshasa); British in Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Mauritius, Seychelles, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland; French in Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Benin, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), Chad, Djibouti, Madagascar, Réunion and the Comoros; Germans in Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi; Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde, Angola and Mozambique; Spanish in Western Sahara and Equatorial Guinea.

xiv

1893–1895

Africans in King Leopold's Congo Rebellion.

1895

France forms a federation of colonies that becomes French West Africa.

1896

Ethiopian Emperor Menilek defeats the Italians and gains the country's independence.

1899–1902

Africans defeated by the British in the Second Anglo-Boer War.

1910

Union of South Africa gegründet.

1914–1918

World War I: French and British conquer German Togo; Africans fight alongside various colonial powers in Africa.

1922

Egypt gains its independence.

1930

Haile Selassie I crowned Emperor of Ethiopia.

1935

Italians invade Ethiopia.

1936

Union Party in South Africa stripped blacks of voting rights.

1939–1945

World War II: Many major battles in North Africa; Africans in French and British colonies were drafted to fight in Europe and Asia.

1940er

The first nationalist political parties emerge in West Africa.

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1944

William Tubman becomes President of Liberia.

1945

The Arab League, an organization of Arab states, is founded in Cairo. Ethiopia regains its independence.

1948

Apartheid policies introduced in South Africa.

1950er

Several independence movements against colonial rule develop.

1951

Libya declared an independent monarchy under King Idris I.

1952

Gamal Abdel Nasser takes power in Egypt.

1953

The Central African Federation (CAF) is a joint venture between Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland (Malawi).

1954

War breaks out in Algeria.

1956

Sudan, Morocco and Tunisia become independent.

1957

Ghana gains independence with Kwame Nkrumah as President.

1958

Guinea becomes independent under Sékou Touré.

1960

Independence achieved in Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Dahomey, Benin, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Togo and Upper Volta (Burkina Faso).

1961

Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Tanganyika become independent.

1962

Independence achieved in Algeria, Burundi and Uganda.

1963

Kenya (under Jomo Kenyatta) and Zanzibar become independent. End of the Central African Federation. Organization of African Unity established. FRELIMO begins the armed struggle for the liberation of Mozambique.

1964

In South Africa, Nelson Mandela is on trial and imprisoned. Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form Tanzania. Malawi and Zambia become independent. Hutu overthrow Tutsi rule in Burundi.

1965

Rhodesia declares independence under Ian Smith. Mobutu Sese Seko takes power in Congo (Kinshasa) and renames it Zaire. King Hassan restores the monarchy in Morocco. Gambia becomes independent.

1966

Achieved independence in Lesotho and Botswana.

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1967–1970

Biafra is trying to secede from Nigeria.

1968

Swaziland becomes independent.

1969

Muammar al-Gaddafi takes power in Libya.

1970

Egypt/Sudan: The Aswan High Dam is completed.

1974

Guinea gains independence.

1975

Cape Verde and Angola become independent. FRELIMO government gains independence in Mozambique.

1976

Spain withdraws from Western Sahara; Morocco and Mauritania are fighting over territories. Residents of Soweto and other South African townships begin violent protests.

1970s-1990s

War breaks out across the continent in the countries of Angola, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Kinshasa), Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan and Western Sahara from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda.

1980

Zimbabwe becomes independent.

1990

Nelson Mandela released from prison. Namibia becomes independent.

1993

Apartheid ends in South Africa. Eritrea becomes independent from Ethiopia.

1994

Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi assassinated; Ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi continues. Nelson Mandela becomes South Africa's first black President.

1995

Outbreak of the deadly Ebola virus in Congo (Kinshasa).

1997

Laurent Kabila takes power in Zaire and renames it the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa).

1999

Libya hands over two suspects in a 1986 plane bombing over Lockerbie, Scotland.

2000

Ghana elects President John Kufuor in free elections. Paul Kagame is the first Tutsi to become President of Rwanda.

2001

xvi

Congo (Kinshasa) leader Kabila assassinated; Kabila's son Joseph succeeds him as president.

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Accra

Abidjan

ABYSSINIA

See Eritrea; Ethiopia.

Accra Accra

* Shantytown Poor, run-down part of a town, often inhabited by immigrants

With around 2.8 million inhabitants, Abidjan is the capital of Ivory Coast and one of the most important ports in French-speaking Africa. Located on the edge of the Ebrié Lagoon on the Gulf of Guinea, the seaport handles cargo destined for Ivory Coast, BURKINA FASO, MALI and NIGER. The most important export goods are cocoa, coffee, wood and petroleum. Abidjan is also a banking center for West Africa. The Krou and the Akan form the two major ethnic groups residing in Abidjan. The city's numerous educational institutions include the state university, archives, museums and libraries. In addition to schools for marine sciences, communications and administration, there is a research center for coffee and cocoa. Abidjan is clearly divided into modern and underdeveloped areas. The Hotel Ivoire, a tourist resort with an ice rink, bowling alley, cinema complex and casino, is one of the city's main attractions. Another landmark is the Italian-designed St. Paul's Cathedral, one of Africa's most ornate churches. The city is connected to other cities in Côte d'Ivoire by highway and to Burkina Faso by rail. (See also tourism, transportation.)

Ccra, the capital of GHANA, is located on the Gulf of Guinea on the Gold Coast in West Africa. It is the commercial, educational, governmental and cultural center of Ghana, the hub of the country's road and rail system and the location of Kotoka International Airport. The population is over 1.6 million. The Portuguese, the first Europeans to visit the region, arrived in the early 1500s. They were followed in the 1600s by the Dutch and British who built two forts used in the slave trade. The forts later grew into the city of Accra. Under the British, the city was the capital of the Gold Coast, which became Ghana in 1957. Today's Accra is sharply divided into modern sectors and slums*. Industries in Accra include brewing and distilling, canned fish and fruit, clothing, footwear and pharmaceuticals. The city has an ocean port, but Tema to the east surpasses it in importance. Accra is home to the University of Ghana, as well as schools of communication, science and technology. The National Museum and Archives and the National Theater are all located in the city. In addition, live music performances, cinemas and visitor facilities have contributed to a growing tourism industry in Accra. (See also tourism.)

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Achebe, Chino

Achebe, Achebe, Chinua Chinua 1930 - Nigerian writer

* Leaving an organization or country

Nigerian author Chinua Achebe is known for his writings on the impact of colonialism and Western culture on traditional African societies.

Hinua Cinualomogu Achebe is a Nigerian writer whose novels often explore the difficult choices Africans face in modern life. Achebe's first novel Things Fall Apart (1958) is considered a classic and one of the most widely read works in African literature. The hero of the book commits suicide, unable to choose between radically different ways of life shaped by traditional and European values. Achebe worked as a teacher and writer before serving as director of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation between 1961 and 1966. During the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970) he returned to his native territory of Igboland (renamed Biafra) which attempted to secede* from Nigeria. Achebe became spokesman for Biafra in Europe and North America. After the war he taught at several universities in Africa and the United States. In addition to his novels, Achebe has written short stories and poems inspired by his wartime experiences. He is also the author of several children's books specifically designed for use in African schools. (See also Literature.)

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Africa, study by

Addis Ababa

* Deforestation Removal of a forest as a result of human activity

Africa, study by

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

ddis Ababa, the capital and largest city of ETHIOPIA, is situated on a high plateau in the center of the country. As the seat of the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY, an organization dedicated to the interests of African states, Addis Ababa is also the diplomatic capital of Africa. Addis Ababa was founded in 1886 by Empress Taitu, wife of Ethiopian Emperor MENILEK II. A district called Arada, where the palace, St. George's Cathedral and the central market were located, became the center of Addis Ababa. The city grew as nobles receiving land grants from the emperor set up military camps around the center. In 1892 Addis Ababa was the capital of the Ethiopian Empire. However, a shortage of firewood due to deforestation* in the area prompted Menilek to move his capital elsewhere. Importing fast-growing acacia trees solved the problem. A railway line connecting Addis Ababa to the Red Sea port of Djibouti was completed in 1917 and contributed to the city's prosperity. The population was also growing at this time, partly due to slave raids in south-western Ethiopia. Many of the people who were captured - and there were tens of thousands - were sent to Addis Ababa. Ethiopia was under Italian control between 1935 and 1941, and the Italians planned to rebuild Addis Ababa along European lines. They made changes that shaped much of the modern city, including building roads and factories around the city. Arada, renamed Piazza, became the central market and business district. Today, Ethiopia's main roads, rail network and air routes pass through Addis Ababa. With a population of approximately 2.5 million, the city is also the country's financial, commercial, educational and media center.

he exploration of Africa has a long history. Humans have been gathering information about the continent since ancient times. Early reports came mainly from travelers, explorers, missionaries, and merchants. Later, scholars from fields such as history, anthropology, geography and natural sciences began to conduct research there. early contact. In ancient times, people outside of Africa knew little about it. The Greeks and Romans were fairly familiar with parts of North Africa, but they had limited knowledge of sub-Saharan Africa*. From the 700s AD, the Arabs developed extensive contacts with peoples of the MAGHREB and began to explore areas south of the Sahara and along the east coast of Africa. By the end of the 19th century, the Arabs had learned much about western and eastern Africa by trading with the peoples of these regions. European interest in sub-Saharan Africa began with exploratory voyages in the late 15th century. Explorers, missionaries, and merchants wrote about their visits to Africa, giving Europeans some basic information about the "dark continent." In the late 1800s, as Europeans became

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Africa, studying involvement in a frenzied "scrabble" for colonies in Africa, scholars began to turn their attention to the region.

* Artifact in archeology, an ornament, tool, weapon, or other man-made item

* Cold War era with strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II

Colonial and post-colonial eras. The establishment of colonies led to a more systematic collection of facts about Africa. At the same time, European museums and private collectors began acquiring African artefacts*. Explorers and geographers mapped the continent, and colonial authorities and social scientists began studying the customs, laws, and other aspects of African societies and cultures. Some colonial powers hoped to use the knowledge gained to strengthen their control in Africa. Throughout the colonial period, the interpretation of information about Africa generally reflected the ideas and viewpoints of Europeans rather than Africans. In the mid-20th century, as African nations gained independence, the study of Africa began to shift. New centers and associations dedicated to the study of Africa were established both on the continent and in universities around the world. More African perspectives were taken into account and research expanded to many different areas. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Cold War* sparked a boom in African studies. The competition between the United States and the Soviet Union for political influence in Africa generated great interest in the region. Today, political instability in many African countries makes fieldwork difficult. Nonetheless, Western and African scientists have begun a growing number of joint research projects, sharing data and resources. In some African countries, the need to devote scarce financial resources to more urgent economic, political, and social programs has led to cutbacks in African studies. scope of research. African Studies cover a wide range of fields, from African LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, ARTS, music and culture to African history, biology, economics, political science, geology, anthropology, sociology, religion and philosophy. Some African Studies focus on a specific area of study, such as language and literature. Others take an interdisciplinary approach that combines different areas of study and focuses on the relationships and connections between them. A goal of African Studies is to learn more about the forces that have influenced Africa and its people over the centuries. Scholars are also focused on uncovering the roots of Africa's problems, such as widespread poverty, lack of economic development, ethnic strife and political instability. Trying to understand the continent from an African perspective is often a central feature of her work. (See also Archeology and Prehistory, Economic History, Ethnic Groups and Identity, History of Africa, Maps and Mapping, Music and Song, Oral Tradition, Popular Culture, Travel and Exploration.)

AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (ANC) 4th

See South Africa; Zambia.

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age and aging

Africans Africans The Republic The Republic

AFRIKANER

Age age and aging aging

* Shepherd associated with or dependent on livestock farming

The African Republics were independent states founded in the 1850s by Dutch colonists (Africans) from British-ruled SOUTH AFRICA. The two longest living Afrikaner republics were the Orange Free State between the Orange and Vaal rivers and the South African Republic (or Transvaal) between the Limpopo and Vaal rivers. Each state had a strong central government, a judicial system with limited powers, and voting rights limited to adult white males. The black Africans who lived in these states had no civil liberties or citizenship rights. Plagued by conflicts with surrounding African communities and a weak economy, the Orange Free State was unstable. The economic situation improved dramatically when diamonds were discovered there in 1867. Although the Orange Free State lost ownership of some of its diamond fields four years later, its economy became more stable. In addition, it increased its territory by conquering several small African states. The South African Republic also experienced political turmoil as it attempted to expand beyond its borders. In addition, the country has been torn apart by power struggles between African groups. In 1877 the British declared the South African Republic part of their colony in South Africa. The Afrikaners resisted the takeover and in 1881 defeated the British Army in the First War of Independence. When gold was discovered in the Republic of South Africa in 1886, thousands of fortune hunters flooded the country and colonial-era European mining companies attempted to seize control of the country. Cecil Rhodes, Prime Minister of the British Cape Colony, tried in 1895 to overthrow the government of the South African Republic. Four years later, the British declared war on the South African Republic in hopes of controlling the valuable gold mines. The Orange Free State joined the South African Republic in resistance against the British, but the Afrikaner Republics lost the war and became provinces of British-ruled South Africa in 1902. (See also Colonialism in Africa; Southern Africa, history.)

See African Republics; South Africa.

ge has two significant roles in traditional sub-Saharan African cultures. First, respect for old age and the elderly is a universal social ideal. Second, many societies are organized into groups by age, and membership in such groups helps define a person's sense of identity and place in the community. Recent social changes have somewhat weakened these values and practices, but age is still a powerful formative force in agricultural and pastoral* areas, particularly where local communities have a high degree of independence.

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age and aging

* Cult group held together by devotion to a specific person, belief or god

* Diplomats who maintain relations with other nations * Ritualistic religious ceremonies that follow a set pattern * Possessions or other valuable goods or properties

* gerontocratic

ruled by elders

age and respect. Older people claim a right to respect from others because of their age – they have lived longer than others. They deserve respect because they have accumulated wisdom and experience over the years. Younger people have a reason to accept this mindset. By showing respect to their elders, they hope to ensure that they receive respect when they reach this stage in life. The ideal of the respected elder characterizes many African institutions. The extended family is dominated by the senior generation. Elders control property and also grant or deny permission for younger people to marry. Religious beliefs also reflect respect for elders. Cults* honoring ancestors are the highest form of respect for seniority—ancestors predate the oldest living family members. However, the elderly have power within the community because they are closer in age to their ancestors than anyone else. The high status of older people in African cultures is related to the idea that family growth is good and happy. People see large families as a source of security in times of crisis and want to leave descendants who honor them as ancestors. The position of older men in society is closely related to this concern for family size and fertility. The power of older men is enhanced by their control over marriages and also over the status of young men. By delaying the marriages of young men, the elders create a surplus of young women. When the elders take these women as second or additional wives, they start large families, which improves their position in the community. Another factor related to respect for elders is their control over information and resources. However, not all older people are respected, especially when their abilities are declining. But those who skillfully display their knowledge, diplomatic* skills, social connections and ability to perform rituals* are held in high esteem. These abilities are considered commons*. The ideal of respect for old age does not always correspond to the reality of intergenerational relations. Harsh treatment by older men can inspire disrespect and anger in younger men, who may engage in behaviors that the elders cannot fully control. Also, where communities are dominated by older men, women do not always accept their secondary status. Women and men experience old age differently. Women can continue to gain status and power at an age when older men suffer losses. Women build supportive networks of influence within families and households. These continue throughout life. Men, who tend to operate in a more competitive public sphere, eventually have to give up some of their power in exchange for continued respect from the younger men. aging and age groups. Many African cultures do not view aging as a continuous process, but as a series of leaps from one stage to another - often from adolescence to adulthood and 'old age'. RITES OF INITIATION, ceremonies through which people attain a new status, mark the transition from adolescence to adulthood. In some gerontocratic* cultures, initiation is a life's work.

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Age and aging long process during which the elders retain knowledge and gradually share it. This delays the rise of the younger ones to the highest ranks. The content of the secrets is less important than the privileges that come with owning them. Group initiation is a form of social organization based on age. When young people of similar ages go through the initiation process together, a bond or sense of community is created that unites the group long after initiation and well into old age. Another form of social organization is the age set, where the community is divided into groups by age. senior groups with

In African cultures, older people are held in high esteem for their knowledge, skills and experience. Older men, like the Senegalese pictured here, often have a significant impact on the lives of younger members of the community.

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Age and aging dominate over younger in such systems, reinforcing the link between age and authority. In contrast, peers or people within a group experience equality and connectedness as peers. A typical example of an age-class society is the Maasai of East Africa. Their system was originally military in nature. It divided young men into warrior groups by age, with their roles defined by seniority. The system survived as the basis of gerontocratic power over young men, the moran, or warriors. Boys must compete with the elders in order to be accepted into Moran's next age group. As Moran, they remain in Limbo for extended periods of time, neither cubs nor full-fledged adults. If the elders relaxed their restrictions and allowed the younger men to marry, the older men would lose their control over the women. Eventually, however, the Moran are allowed to marry and are accepted into the society of the elders in a kind of second consecration. However, not all seniors are the same. The competition for power among the various groups continues as new groups attain elder status and older ones spiral out of control. Societies organized around age systems can view their own history as a set of age groups. In these societies, the aging process appears to stall during times when family, community, or age-related relationships do not change. The occurrence of a significant change—such as birth, initiation, marriage, or death—brings us an awareness that everyone is older. At such times, each age group moves forward and power shifts within the community. (See also Death, Grief, and Ancestors; Family.)

Agriculture * Subsistence farming enough food to live on

raise

only

Agriculture plays a central role in the economies of nations across Africa, accounting for between 30 and 60 percent of total economic output. In many African countries, the majority of people work in agriculture, producing goods for their own use and sometimes for export. Small-scale and subsistence farming* is the basic form of agriculture in most parts of the continent. Agricultural practices in Africa are extremely diverse. Many of the differences are related to the ecological diversity of the continent - its wide variety of landscapes and climates. The crops and cultivation methods suited to the arid desert regions of North Africa differ significantly from those suited to the tropical rainforests of Central Africa. In addition, the cultural tradition of a group or region influences which crops are grown and the techniques used to grow them.

MAIN CROPS There are two main types of agriculture in Africa: horticultural crops, which are mainly grown from the roots or shoots of plants that have been planted in the ground, and field crops, which are mainly grown from seeds. Africans also raise various animals as livestock.

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Agriculture root crops. One of the oldest and most important root crops in Africa is the yam, a starchy plant sometimes incorrectly referred to as a sweet potato. Mainly grown in tropical or subtropical regions, yams are a reliable staple that can be easily stored for future use. Although they have a rather low nutritional value, they are often grown in combination with vegetables and other foods that contribute to an appropriate nutrient balance. In some parts of Africa - particularly West, Central and East Africa - cassava is an important food crop. This starchy root crop is the source of tapioca. Although cassava was once viewed only as an emergency crop for famine, it is now widely grown and has even replaced the cultivation of yams in some areas. Cassava is suitable for cultivation in a wide range of climates and can be left in the soil much longer than most other crops in both the wet and dry seasons. Two other important African root crops are potatoes and plantains. Potatoes are primarily found in the drier, Mediterranean climates of North Africa and Southern Africa, but are also grown in the higher elevations of other regions. Plantains, a relative of bananas, have been an important crop in the tropical rainforests of Africa for centuries. Mainly used for cooking, some types of plantains are also brewed to make beverages. Another plant in the banana family, the enset is sometimes referred to as the false banana. The enset does not produce edible fruits like its cousin the banana. Instead, its stems are used to make fiber and rope, while its seeds are used for ornamental and medicinal purposes. Wild in several areas, enset is grown only in the highland regions of ETHIOPIA, where its starchy stalk is pounded, cooked, and served as a staple food. A variety of root crops have been introduced to Africa from other parts of the world. Taro, a plant that grows near rivers and streams, is native to Southeast Asia. Peanuts, valued for their oil, and various types of beans have traveled to Africa from America.

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

See Color Plate 6, Vol. 4.

seed. Seed crops of grains and grains are grown from seeds saved from the previous harvest. These crops are grown in cultivated fields and are found throughout Africa, particularly in the savannas* and regions with moderate rainfall. The most common African grain - and the most important food item in the continent's history - is sorghum. Originally developed from wild grasses native to the savanna regions of North Africa, sorghum has been cultivated for food for at least 7,000 years. In some areas, the cultivation of this grain has probably developed in close connection with LIVESTOCK PASTURE. However, the spread of sorghum is linked to the development of the iron industry about 2,000 years ago. Iron tools proved particularly useful for breaking up and clearing the hard, dry soil of the savannah regions, and for weeding and harvesting crops. Another important cereal crop of the savanna regions of Africa is millet. Certain millet species - including one known as "hungry rice" - are particularly important in times of famine because they can survive fairly long periods of little rainfall.

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Agriculture In some areas of Africa, the traditional cultivation of sorghum and millet has been replaced by the cultivation of maize or maize. Introduced from Central America, corn was initially grown in very limited quantities and only in a few coastal areas of West Africa. However, in the 1900s, corn cultivation became widespread and it became important as a staple crop, particularly in eastern and southern Africa. Maize is also grown extensively in parts of North Africa, mainly in irrigated areas. Farmers who cultivate corn intensively often use mechanical plows and artificial fertilizers. Two other crops, wheat and barley, are grown on a limited basis. Once restricted to the lower Nile Valley and highland regions of Ethiopia, wheat and barley were introduced to the highland areas of southern and eastern Africa. Thanks to irrigation and the development of new plant strains, wheat cultivation was also able to spread to some savannah regions. Wheat and barley are mainly grown for the production of flour. Two main types of rice are grown in Africa. Common rice originally came from Southeast Asia and probably made its way to East Africa via the Indian Ocean shipping routes more than 1,000 years ago. The other type, Guinea rice, is native to the humid areas of the Guinea coast and the upper Niger region of West Africa. Rice does not need to be ground and is easy to store and transport. In the cities along the east coast of Africa, rice gained prestige as a food item for travelers and guests. The most important rice-growing countries in Africa today include Egypt, GUINEA, SENEGAL, SIERRA LEONE, IVORY COAST, NIGERIA and TANZANIA.

* Legumes beans

Vegetables such as peas and

* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

Other cultures. In addition to the main root and seed crops, Africans grow a variety of legumes*, fruits and vegetables, and plants used to make beverages. High-protein legumes such as beans, cowpeas and soybeans are grown extensively across Africa, generally in combination with other crops. Such plants are typically grown in garden plots maintained by families. The main fruits grown in Africa include dates, figs, olives, bananas and pineapples. Dates, figs and olives are mainly grown in the desert oases of North Africa. Bananas are grown in the tropical regions of Africa; Pineapples are mainly grown as cash crop* in SOUTH AFRICA, Ivory Coast, Congo Basin and KENYA. Citrus fruits, including oranges and grapefruit, are grown for export primarily along the southern coast of South Africa and the Mediterranean coast of North Africa. A number of vegetables - including tomatoes, onions, cabbage, peppers, okra, eggplant and cucumbers - are grown in Africa. Tomatoes and onions, the most common vegetables, grow in abundance along the coast of North Africa. The main beverage cultures in Africa are tea, coffee, cocoa and grapes. The largest tea producers, mainly grown in highland regions, are Kenya, Tanzania, MALAWI, ZIMBABWE and MOZAMBIQUE. The most important coffee producers include Ethiopia, UGANDA, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar. Cocoa, which is best suited to tropical regions, is grown in West Africa. Grapes produced in North Africa and South Africa are mainly used in wine making. These are all major cash crops that are primarily grown

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Agriculture

See Color Plate 3, Vol. 4.

for export. Other cash crops include palm oil, coconuts, cashews, rubber, tobacco, cotton and sugarcane.

CULTIVATION AND TECHNOLOGY African farmers often struggle to make a living off the land. In many countries, between 70 and 90 percent of people farm on very small plots, cultivating just enough to meet their own needs. Although the environment largely determines which crops are grown, local cultural, social and economic conditions shape farming methods. * Plowed fallow but not planted during the growing season

While modern tractors can be found across Africa, animals such as oxen are often used on small farms. Here, farmers in Burkina Faso plow a field to prepare it for planting.

cultivation systems. Traditionally, Africans in savanna regions and in tropical forest areas have practiced a cultivation method known as shifting cultivation. Farmers clear trees and shrubs off a small piece of land, burn the vegetation to enrich the soil with nutrients, and then plant crops. After two or three years of use, the soil is exhausted and the piece of land remains fallow for between 4 and 20 years* until natural processes restore the soil's fertility. In the meantime, the farmers are clearing and planting another piece of land, thus preventing soil erosion.

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Agriculture Shifting cultivation requires large areas. In recent decades, Africa's population has grown dramatically, expanding into much of the available land. As a result, this cultivation system began to disappear in many parts of Africa. The increasing scarcity of land has prompted many farmers to adopt a system of rotational cultivation. This means that they grow different crops in the same fields and leave some areas fallow for a short time. Much of rotational farming relies on the use of fertilizers and other farming techniques to maintain soil fertility. In most of North Africa and in many sub-Saharan regions, farmers continuously plant crops in the same fields. This system of permanent farming is used where population densities are very high, arable land is very scarce - as in North Africa - or where the soils are naturally very fertile - as in the volcanic soils of East Africa. To maintain crop yields and fertility, farmers use modern techniques such as commercial fertilizers, special seed varieties, and irrigation. In many sub-Saharan regions, these different cultivation systems overlap. For example, rotation cultivation is often combined with the permanent management of home gardens. The permanent cultivation of cash crops takes place alongside subsistence crops that are cultivated in shifting cultivation.

Women in Cameroon remove the husks from corn cobs or cobs. Originally from America, corn has become an important staple in Africa.

Agricultural engineering and work. The majority of farmers in Africa have very little money to invest in modern technology. As a result, farming is in most cases very labor intensive as individuals do the work on their small plots using hoes, hand plows and other simple tools. Mechanized farm equipment such as tractors and harvesters are generally only found on large commercial farms that produce cash crops for export. The price of oil has become far too high for ordinary farmers to use these machines. In some areas of Africa, especially in densely populated regions, agriculture is often closely linked to livestock. Some farmers use cattle as draft animals to pull plows and spread animal waste on the fields as fertilizer. In other areas - including parts of Nigeria and Kenya - nomadic pastoralists typically live apart from sedentary farmers, leading to a lack of access to draft animals and natural fertilizers. Irrigation and terracing are two agricultural technologies used in Africa. Irrigation is particularly important in the desert regions of North Africa, allowing farmers to cultivate land that would normally be unsuitable for agriculture. In some hilly regions - such as northern Nigeria, CAMEROON, SUDAN and Ethiopia - farmers have built terraces on hillsides to plant fields and protect the soil from erosion. The division of labor in African agriculture is flexible and diverse. The way different societies organize agricultural work varies so much from region to region that it is difficult to make general statements. Typically, especially in subsistence and farming communities, men prepare the land and women plant and harvest the crops and perform most other farming tasks. In addition to growing food for the family, women also grow vegetables to bring to market, prepare cooked food to sell on city streets, and work as day labourers.

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Agriculture Rice Research A new variety of rice developed in the 1990s changed farming practices in West Africa. The new rice is a cross between Asian rice and traditional varieties that have been cultivated in Africa for more than 3,000 years. African rice varieties are drought and pest resistant with their broad, drooping leaves that discourage weed growth. However, many farmers in the region grew Asian rice, which is less resilient to weeds, drought and pests but produces higher crop yields. The new rice, developed by the West Africa Rice Development Association, combines the best qualities of both species. This was achieved through the use of biotechnological techniques and a gene bank containing seeds from 1,500 African rice varieties.

LAND REFORMS AND PROBLEMS Across Africa, land has traditionally been distributed and allocated according to age-old political and social conventions. In some places, land decisions were made by village chiefs; in others by democratic village institutions, religious leaders or elders. Much of the land was owned collectively by all the people of a particular village, region, or group. In the second half of the 20th century, many governments in Africa began to implement land reforms aimed at changing traditional land and labor systems. The goal was to create real estate owned and operated by individuals rather than groups. It was hoped that such reforms would increase agricultural production and create more stable agricultural economies. Along with land reform, African governments also encouraged farmers to grow cash crops that could create export earnings for their countries. Such policies have contributed to serious problems in African agriculture. Land reform created confusion and conflict as different ethnic and social groups competed for land ownership. In some areas, the reforms have left some peasants without land. Elsewhere, government attempts to force people to move elsewhere have destroyed traditional societies. This happened in Tanzania under President Nyerere, when peasants were forced to live in large communal settlements on the Chinese model. The increasing emphasis on cash crops has contributed to shortages of staple foods, making it difficult for African countries to feed their populations. As a result, many countries are now importing food. Rapid population growth has exacerbated the problem and created a demand for larger amounts of food. At the same time, the migration of Africans from rural areas to the cities has reduced the number of people engaged in subsistence farming who grow enough to feed themselves. Environmental conditions and crop failures have contributed to problems in agricultural production. Africa has always experienced periods of drought and famine. However, as populations increase, African nations are finding it increasingly difficult to cope with crop shortages. This situation is exacerbated by the lack of cheap long-distance transport. High population growth rates, environmental conditions and failed economic policies have triggered an agricultural crisis in many African countries. Forced to import food, governments had to spend money that could be used to improve their economies and the lives of their people. Instead, they must fight to meet only the basic needs of their population. The challenge of the future for African countries will be to develop more productive, profitable and reliable agricultural systems. (See also Animals, household; Development, economy, and social affairs; Hunger and famine; Irrigation and flood control; Labor; Land tenure; Peasantry and land settlement; Plantation systems; Plants: varieties and uses; Women in Africa.)

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AIDS

AIDS * sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

IDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is a deadly disease that affects millions of people around the world. AIDS is one of the leading causes of death among adults in sub-Saharan Africa* and threatens to overwhelm many African nations and disrupt their social and economic development. AIDS is caused by HIV, a virus that attacks and destroys the body's immune system, leaving the infected person vulnerable to disease. The virus is mainly transmitted through sexual intercourse, transfusions of contaminated blood, and needle-sharing by drug users. Mothers can transmit HIV to infants during childbirth and while breastfeeding. Almost 500,000 African children are born with HIV every year. Figures released by the United Nations in 2000 showed that nearly 14 million Africans had died from AIDS-related diseases and 25.3 million were infected with HIV. However, the impact of AIDS is not the same across the continent. Although it first appeared in East Africa, Southern Africa is now the hardest hit area. The proportion of people infected with HIV ranged from around 20 percent in SOUTH AFRICA to around 36 percent in BOTSWANA. The rate of infection has been lower in East and West Africa and much lower in North Africa - although the disease is also gaining ground in some of those areas. In the early years of the AIDS epidemic, the disease was particularly prevalent in African cities. However, in recent years, the rate of infection in rural areas has increased dramatically. One reason is the increasing mobility of people between town and country. Many rural people move to the cities to work, become infected and then spread the disease when they visit their villages. Infection rates were highest in areas along long-distance truck routes. A number of other explanations for the rapid spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa have been put forward. For one thing, Africans tend to begin sexual activity at a relatively young age and often have sex outside of marriage. A lack of education has limited acceptance of safer sex practices. Experts also point out that people with other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are more likely to become infected with HIV. In many parts of Africa, people with STDs may not receive adequate treatment due to a lack of health services and the high cost of drugs made by Western pharmaceutical companies. AIDS poses an enormous threat to the future of African nations. By reducing the number of productive workers, the disease will create serious labor shortages in industry and agriculture. Schools and hospitals will be understaffed. Many children will lose their parents to AIDS. The disease has already orphaned more than 13 million African children and it is estimated that by 2010 this number will rise to 40 million. As a result, large numbers of children may grow up in poverty with few opportunities and little hope. At present, prospects for combating HIV and AIDS in Africa appear bleak. Many countries lack the funds for massive education and health programs. Officials in some countries have failed to acknowledge the scale of the problem. Although some treatments may take longer

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Akan region the lives of people living with AIDS, the cost is prohibitive for most Africans. Researchers are currently working on a vaccine to prevent HIV infection, but such a cure may not be available for many years. In the meantime, the best hope is to educate people about the disease and make treatment more widely available. Western pharmaceutical companies have been criticized for charging high prices for drugs used to treat HIV and AIDS. (See also diseases, family, gender roles and sexuality, health care, United Nations in Africa.)

Akan Akan Region Region * Clan group of people descended from a common ancestor

he Akan Region, an area on the coast of the West African Gulf of Guinea, lies between the Bandama River in Ivory Coast and the Volta River in GHANA. During the 16th century, separate, competing states were formed in the northern and southern parts of the region. Before the 14th century, the region consisted of small communities of Akan clans*. These people lived in relative isolation until traders from the north arrived, drawn by the gold and kola nuts found in the Black Volta River region and Akan Forest. This new trade prompted some Akan people to move north, eventually founding several important states and trading cities. Europeans arrived on the coast of Ghana in the late 14th century, boosting the trade in gold and slaves. The Portuguese came first, followed by the French, English and Dutch in the 16th century. Later, in the 17th century, came the Danes, Swedes and Brandenburgers (traders on the Gold Coast from the Brandenburg Africa Company). Some Akan clans moved south to the coast, where they formed a loose confederation known as the Fante States. These states competed for trade with the northern Akan clans. In the 1600s, various Akan states attempted to gain control of the region. Most powerful were the Denkyira, who conquered much of the southern and western Akan region. In the late 1600s, a group of chiefs from the northern Akan formed the ASANTE state. Over the years, the Asante took over territories in the region and built an empire. They expanded their trade routes and became an important source of slaves for the slave trade. In 1807 the Asante attacked the Fante and the war between the two peoples lasted 11 years. This conflict brought the Asante into contact with the British, who had traded with the Fante for many years. In contrast to the Asante slave trade, the British sided with their long-time trading partners. In 1824 the British and the Fante attacked the Asante but were badly defeated. Two years later the Allies had more success and the conflict was settled in 1831 by a treaty recognizing the independence of the Fante States. To enforce the treaty, Britain expanded its political and economic presence in the region. In the 1860s, a new Asante king attempted to conquer the Fante, but the British invaded and defeated the Asante. Britain declared the Fante area a British colony, and in 1896 the Asante state also became part of the British Empire. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

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Aksum

Aksum Aksum

* tribute paid by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under threat of violence * archaeological refers to the study of past human cultures and societies, usually through the excavation of ruins

ALCOHOL

Alexandria

ksum was a kingdom in present-day ERITREA and northern ETHIOPIA between about 200 B.C. and AD 650. The capital, Aksum, lay on the western edge of the Eritrean highlands and was a powerful and prosperous city for several centuries. Aksum is of particular interest to historians because its ruler, Ezana, converted to Christianity in 340, shortly after the Roman Emperor Constantine had become a Christian. The form of Christianity practiced in Aksum, called Monophysite, was based on the belief that Jesus Christ was fully divine and not human. When the Catholic Church condemned this view in 451, many Monophysite Christians fled the Byzantine Empire (the eastern part of the Roman Empire) and settled in Ethiopia. This group likely helped spread the faith among the local population. In fact, the modern city of Aksum still exerts great influence over the affairs of the ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. Although ancient Aksum's economy was based on agriculture and tributes* from other countries, the main source of the kingdom's wealth was international trade. Archaeological* evidence and written records indicate that around 100 BC a series of towns linked the inland capital to the port of Adulis on the Red Sea coast. These cities provided an overland trade route for valuable goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhino horn. Aksum grew rich by exporting these goods to trading partners along the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coasts. In the late 200s AD, Aksum began minting gold, silver, and copper coins that facilitated trade with other countries. Most of these coins were found in southern Arabia, one of the areas Aksum controlled. Aksum reached the peak of his power and influence in the 500s under King Kaleb. Thereafter the kingdom suffered a rapid decline and within 100 years of Caleb's death it had lost its trading partners and the territories he ruled. At the same time, soil erosion and people's overexploitation of natural resources weakened Aksum's local economy. All that remains of ancient Aksum are the ruins of the capital with its huge carved stone pillars. These pillars were probably funerary monuments for the tombs of the pre-Christian kings of Aksum.

See food and drink.

Located on a promontory near the Nile Delta, Alexandria is Egypt's second largest city and the country's most important port. It was 332 B.C. founded. by Alexander the Great and quickly became the leading city in the Mediterranean. Known in ancient times as a center of learning, Alexandria possessed the largest library of the time and attracted scholars from near and far. Although the city remained an important port and trading center after the Arab conquest of Egypt in AD 642, it slowly fell into disrepair over the next hundred years.

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Algeria The French occupied Alexandria from 1798 to 1801. In the early 19th century, the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali breathed new life into the city by building a canal to the Nile and encouraging foreign traders to settle there. Alexandria thrived on the newly established cotton trade. After the opening of the SUEZ CANAL in 1869, the city once again became an important trading post between Europe and Asia. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the population grew and included many nationalities, cultures and religions. However, when Gamal NASSER became Egypt's leader in 1952, most foreign residents left the city. Alexandria has developed into an important industrial and commercial center in recent years. It is currently home to more than 3 million people.

Algeria Algeria * Fundamentalist member of group that emphasizes strict interpretation of religious beliefs * Secular non-religious; connected to everyday life

At the end of the 20th century, the North African republic of Algeria was mired in a civil war between Islamic fundamentalists* and the government, which enjoyed broad popular support. At the heart of the conflict was a struggle for control of the nation's future - should Algeria remain a secular* state or adopt strict Muslim rule? The war was the latest chapter in the country's turbulent history, which included periods of invasion, foreign domination and internal divisions.

THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE Africa's second largest nation, Algeria covers a territory of 920,000 square miles. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, MOROCCO and MAURITANIA to the west, and TUNISIA and LIBYA to the east. The country has three distinct climatic and geographic zones: the Tell, the Highlands and the Algerian Sahara Desert. the tell A region of fertile hills and valleys, the Tell (from the Arabic word for "hill") runs across the country from Morocco to Tunisia. It has a Mediterranean climate, with mild winters and summers and enough rainfall to support the cultivation of grain, citrus, and grapes. Around 90 percent of Algeria's population live and work in Tell, mostly in agriculture. In addition, the main cities of the country, including ALGIERS, the capital, Oran and Annaba, are located in the tell. These modern cities mix Islamic and European influences. Algerians living in the cities tend to be better educated, more secular and more open to Western culture than those living in rural areas.

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

The highland plateau. South of the Tell is the Tell Atlas Mountains, stretching eastward from Morocco. Beyond these mountains lies the highland plateau. The plateau consists mainly of savannah* and is characterized by shallow depressions that fill with water in the rainy season and form salt lakes called chotts. During the dry season, the water in these lakes evaporates, leaving behind salt deposits. Highly valued in ancient times, salt was the original source of Algeria's wealth. Today, almost 7 percent of Algeria's population lives in the highlands, and most of the residents make a living from keeping herds of sheep, goats and cattle.

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Algeria

SPAIN Mediterranean

Algiers Oran

300 miles

Konstantin

Cheliff River

300 Kilometer

MAROKKO A

S I N T A N U

TUNISIA

Tindouf

Annaba

ALGERIA

LIBYA

MAURETANIEN A R G G A A H 9.573 ft.

S A H A R A ein Tam

MALI

S . M T Djanet

DESERT

et River n r a ss

NIGER

Algerian desert Sahara. On the southern edge of the highland plateau lies the Atlas Mountains of the Sahara. Beyond the mountains lies the vast Algerian Sahara. In the heart of this desert rise the Ahaggar Mountains, a volcanic chain that includes Mount Tahat, the country's highest peak (9,573 feet). Although the desert occupies more than 80 percent of the country's total area, only about 3 percent of the population live there. Most residents have settled near oases, where deep wells tap underground springs to irrigate crops and dates. In the harsh desert climate, temperatures can reach as high as 120ºF. A hot, dusty wind called the Scirocco blows north through the desert to dry out the highland plateau (for 40 days each summer) and the Tell (for 20 days) before meeting wetter, cooler air over the Mediterranean. See map in Minerals and Mining (Vol. 3).

* Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Total value of goods and services produced and consumed in a country

Business. Algeria's wealth has always been tied to its minerals. In the heyday of trade routes crossing the Sahara, merchants carried salt south of the desert to trade for gold. Today, oil and natural gas buried beneath the desert sands form the basis of the Algerian economy. Oil and gas provides 95 percent of Algeria's export earnings and accounts for a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP)*. However, dependence on oil exports has made the economy unstable. In

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Algeria Berber Pirates In the 1500s, Algeria was a province of the Ottoman Empire based in Turkey. Algiers became a center for pirates, led by two brothers who were captains in the Turkish Navy. The pirates roamed the Mediterranean Sea, launching raids on passing ships. Famed for their ferocity, they were known as the Berber pirates (from the Latin word for "foreign"). Piracy in the Mediterranean continued until the early 19th century when the navies of the United States and Europe joined forces to put an end to it.

* Sector

Part; subdivision of society

See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

* native

resident in a specific place

In 1986, the collapse in world oil prices plunged the nation into a severe economic crisis from which it has yet to recover. Throughout history, agriculture - mainly in the Tell - has been the livelihood of most Algerians. Today many people work in factories, government and service industries. These sectors* are concentrated in and around cities and attract people from rural areas looking for work. Overall there is a lack of jobs; At the end of the 1990s, the unemployment rate was around 30 percent.

HISTORY Algeria's location on the Mediterranean coast has historically made it a major attraction for invaders and settlers from the Middle East and Europe. Controlled by the Roman and Ottoman Empires during various periods of its history, Algeria was ruled by the French for more than 100 years before gaining independence in 1962. early history. The indigenous people of Algeria lived in the Ahaggar region 40,000 years ago, before the Sahara turned into desert. Rock paintings dating back around 6,000 years show the diverse wildlife that was once found in the region: elephants, hippos and crocodiles. These have now disappeared, being replaced by species better adapted to the desert climate. As the Sahara deserted, the peoples of the region moved to find better land for their farms and herds. Some came to the coast and founded around 3000 BC. BC settlements. About 500 years later, the Phoenicians, a seafaring people from the Middle East, established outposts along the North African coast, including what later became Algiers. As the Phoenicians expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean and into Europe, Rome was drawn to their wealth. In the Punic Wars of the 200s and 100s B.C. the two powers fought in North Africa, Spain and Sicily. Eventually, Rome gained control of the region. The Roman era, which lasted until the early 400s AD, was a period of relative peace and prosperity. The Romans built roads and military posts, introduced Christianity and provided a market for Algerian grain. But as the Roman Empire fell, its control over Algeria weakened. For a time, members of a Christian group called the Donatists led an independent state in Algeria. This fledgling state fell to the Vandals who invaded North Africa from Europe. The Vandals, in turn, were driven out of Algeria by the Byzantine Empire, the eastern part of the former Roman Empire. Arab invasion. In the 600s, invaders from the Arabian Peninsula attacked and conquered Algeria. Arab settlers sent to govern the coastal towns mixed with the indigenous* BERBER peoples and produced the Arab Berber ethnic groups found in the country today. The Arabs also brought Islam, which quickly became the region's dominant religion, as well as Islamic law and the Arabic language. In the 15th century, under attack from invaders from Christian Spain, Algeria's Muslims turned to the Ottoman Empire in Turkey for help. The

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Algeria's Turkish fleet managed to push back the Spanish, and Algeria came under the control of the Ottoman Empire. French colony. The Ottomans ruled Algeria for 300 years. During this period, Algeria traded with European countries, particularly France, which was a major importer of Algerian grain. In 1830 France decided to take over Algeria. Under the pretext of a trade dispute, the French attacked Algiers. The Algerians resisted, but by 1847 France had gained control of the country. To increase its influence, France began sending settlers to the region. By 1912 nearly 800,000 had arrived. The French also imposed social and political order on Algeria, replacing Arabic with French as the official language and suppressing Islamic culture. Only French and Algerians who converted to Catholicism enjoyed civil rights. Most Algerians have been excluded from the best country and jobs and denied political rights. It was only a matter of time before the situation turned violent. In the 1950s, French troops crossed the Algerian countryside to put down uprisings by rebel gangs fighting for independence.

independence movements. The first steps towards an Algerian independence movement came in the 1930s, when a group of Algerians

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Algeria

▲

1600

▲

1900 2000

▲

1800

▲

1700

▲

1500

▲

600

▲

2500

▲

2500 BC Phoenicians trade with people on the Algerian coast.

600 AD Arabs conquer Algeria.

1500 Ottoman Empire gains control of Algeria.

1847 France takes over Algeria.

1954 Exiled Muslim leaders form a resistance organization against the French.

1962 Algeria becomes independent from France.

1990s Civil wars break out in Algeria.

* nationalize to bring land, industry or public works under government control or ownership. * sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

called for more rights for Muslims. The French colonists, realizing the threat this posed to their way of life, vigorously opposed such action. The situation gradually worsened. Relations between Algerian Muslims and French colonists hardened into mutual hatred, and Muslim leaders began to call for armed revolution. In 1954, several exiled Algerian Muslim leaders, including Ahmed BEN BELLA, met in Egypt to found the National Liberation Front (FLN). In November of the same year, they launched an attack on government and military installations across the country. A bitter and bloody war ensued. In 1958, General Charles de Gaulle was called in from France to resolve the crisis. Realizing that no military solution was possible, de Gaulle announced a referendum on independence in Algeria, opening the vote to Muslims. The French colonists responded with violence, but they had no prospect of success. In the 1962 referendum, Algeria voted almost unanimously for independence and elected Ben Bella as the first president. By the end of the year, most of the French had fled the country. After Independence. President Ben Bella had to deal with a devastated economy and a nation exhausted by decades of war. He promptly nationalized* the oil and natural gas companies and redistributed lands held by the French colonists. He also tried to forge links with other African nations and with other revolutionary governments - such as Cuba, led by Fidel Castro. In 1965, however, Ben Bella was overthrown by a military coup* and Colonel Houari BOUMÉDIENNE was installed as president. When Boumédienne took power, the Algerians were impatient for change. The urban centers swarmed with rural refugees who lacked the skills and education to find work in the cities. Boumédienne proposed programs to improve services and living conditions for the people. In 1978 he introduced a new constitution and established the FLN as the only legal party. However, Boumédienne died suddenly and was replaced by Colonel Chadli Benjedid in 1979. When Benjedid took over, many Algerians felt that the promise of independence was unfulfilled. The FLN lost much of its popular support as people turned to leaders from Islamic fundamentalist groups. After a series of increasingly violent protests in the 1970s and 1980s, a mass demonstration broke out in 1988 demanding multiparty elections. Benjedid was forced to allow free elections in 1991, in which more than 20 political parties took part. The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a radical fundamentalist party, won a majority of seats in the legislature. The FIS leadership announced its plan to impose strict Islamic rule along the lines of the government then in power in Iran. This sparked a new round of demonstrations, particularly among trade unions, professional groups and women, all demanding the annulment of the election results. The military, with the support of France and the United States, overrode the constitution and installed a five-man military council to govern the country. The FIS responded with guerrilla* tactics to regain power.

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Algeria The Democratic and People's Republic of Algeria POPULATION: 31,193,917 (2000 est. population) AREA: 919,595 square miles. (2,381,740 km²)

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1962. Multiparty republic. President elected by universal suffrage. Governing Bodies: Assemblée Populaire Nationale (Legislative House), Prime Minister and Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the President.

LANGUAGES: Arabic (official); French, Berber dialects NATIONAL CURRENCY: Algerian dinar MAIN RELIGIONS: Muslim (Sunni) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1% CITIES: Algiers (capital), 4,200,000 (1999 est.); Oran, Constantine, Annaba, Batna ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 30 inches (760 mm) along the coast to less than 4 inches (100 mm) in the Sahara ECONOMY: GDP per capita: US $4,650

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: wheat, barley, oats, citrus, olives, grapes, wine, dates, figs, sheep, cattle Manufacturing: electrical, petrochemical, food processing, light industry Mining: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc

HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1962-1965 Ahmed Ben Bella 1965-1978 Houari BoumÉdienne 1979-1991 Chadli Benjedid 1991-1998 Liamine Zeroual 1999- Abdelaziz Bouteflika FORCES: 122,000 EDUCATION: Compulsory for 6-15 year olds; Literacy rate 62%

civil war. The conflict between educated, westernized Algerians, who aspired to a secular multi-party state, and poorer, more religiously oriented citizens sparked a civil war. The FIS targeted leaders who opposed it, including Mohammad Boudiaf, President of the Council of State, who was assassinated in 1992. The government response was equally harsh, imprisoning suspected FIS sympathizers without trial and at times resorting to torture and execution of such prisoners. In 1994, General Liamine Zeroual took control of Algeria and made some attempts to resolve the conflict. He called for elections to be held in 1997 but banned political parties whose membership was based on religion or language from participating. This angered the FIS and other Islamic parties. The Islamic Armed Groups (GIA) called for jihad, or holy war, against the government. A new and even bloodier phase of the civil war began as GIA supporters launched a campaign of terror and violence against anyone believed to be collaborating with the government. In 1999 new presidential elections were held and Abdelaziz Bouteflika won. However, the election was accompanied by allegations of fraud. Bouteflika's presidency has failed to stem the violence raging across the country. Unable to achieve peace, the government provided the villagers with weapons for self-defense. Local units, called les Patriotes, formed to protect their communities. However, many of these groups have used their weapons to launch revenge attacks against neighboring villages. The violence, which continues to escalate, underscores the profound differences that divide Algerian society. (See also Arabs in Africa, Atlas

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Amhara Mountains, Colonialism in Africa, Independence Movements, Islam in Africa, Maghreb, North Africa: Geography and Population, North Africa: History and Cultures, Sahara.)

Algiers Algiers

Igiers, the capital of ALGERIA, is situated on a hill overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it is one of the largest cities in North Africa. The different parts of the old town show the different cultures that have influenced Algiers: French-style neighborhoods with wide boulevards alternate with Arab neighborhoods like the Kasbah, a neighborhood with narrow, winding streets. On the plain stretching south and east lies a growing industrial area and new suburbs. First settled by the ancient Phoenicians, Algiers was destroyed by the Vandals in 400 AD. Rebuilt by BERBERS in the 900s, the city later belonged to the Ottoman Empire. In 1830 the French conquered Algiers; They controlled it until 1962 when Algeria gained independence. After independence, the Algerian government made efforts to modernize the capital. Many rural residents migrated to Algiers, replacing departing French settlers who had lived and worked there. By the mid-1960s, Algiers claimed the highest literacy rate in Algeria and had the most cars, buses, hospitals, theatres, libraries, museums and sports facilities. Over the next few decades, industry in the Algiers region produced increasing amounts of agricultural goods, textiles, wood, paper, and mechanical and electrical machinery. However, unchecked industrial growth began to damage the surrounding farmland. In the 1980s, the government ordered an end to expansion and resettled many new residents. (See also architecture.)

AL-MAHDI

See Mahdi, al-.

AL-MANSUR

See Mansur, al-.

Amhara * native

resident in a specific place

The Amhara and Tigrinya, indigenous* peoples of Ethiopia, form the group commonly known as the Abyssinians. Both the Amhara and the Tigrinya are descendants of the founders of the ancient kingdom of AKSUM, and both speak Semitic languages. Originally native to the Ethiopian highlands, the Amhara gradually spread to settle a large area in central Ethiopia. The tigers are alive

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Amhara mainly in Tigre province and ERITREA. Both peoples are largely agricultural, growing crops and, to a lesser extent, raising livestock. Over the centuries, the Amhara have politically dominated the region and their culture has spread to neighboring peoples. Most Amhara are adherents of Monophysite Christianity, the religion of the ancient Aksumite kingdom, which holds that Jesus Christ is inherently purely divine and not human. Contact with the Amhara has led some Islamic residents of the Ethiopian highlands to adopt Christian customs. An unbroken line of Amhara kings ruled Ethiopia until modern times. These rulers considered themselves descendants of Menilek I, who was said to be the son of King Solomon of Jerusalem and the Queen of Sheba. The last Ethiopian emperor of this dynasty, HAILE SELASSIE I, was overthrown in 1974. (See also Christianity in Africa.)

All Dad, When ca. 1925 – Ugandan dictator

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

* Islam religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed; religious belief of Muslims

di Amin Dada, a member of the Nubi people, ruled UGANDA from 1971 to 1979. Regarded as one of Africa's most ruthless leaders, Amin used murder as a political tool and may have killed as many as 300,000 people during his rule. Amin enlisted in the military as a young man and made rapid progress. He was one of the few black Ugandans to become an officer before Uganda gained independence in 1962. Over the next six years he rose to the rank of major general and was appointed commander of the Army and Air Force. Amin also became a close ally of Uganda's first President, Milton OBOTE. After both men were accused of gold smuggling in 1966, Obote took total control of the country with the support of Amin and the military. However, Obote did not trust Amin and arrested him four years later. In 1971, while Obote was out of the country, Amin led a coup* and took office as President. Amin began ridding the army of soldiers from Obote's territory in northern Uganda and replacing them with loyal troops. He confiscated foreign-owned businesses (mostly those owned by Native Americans) and gave them to his supporters. But the new owners looted the businesses, which led to the ruin of the Ugandan economy. To maintain his power, Amin sought support in traditionally Muslim Arab countries and declared Islam* the official religion of Uganda, even though few Ugandans were Muslims. In 1976, Amin attracted international attention when he allowed Palestinian hijackers to land a plane full of Israeli hostages in the capital, Entebbe. Later, Israeli commandos freed the hostages. He attracted further attention a year later when several prominent figures were killed in suspicious circumstances in Uganda. In 1978, Amin invaded and captured Tanzanian territory, leading to TANZANIA attacking Uganda the following year. Meanwhile, various groups in Uganda that opposed Amin have banded together against him. These rebels joined the Tanzanian army to defeat Amin's forces, forcing him to leave the country in April 1979. Amin went into exile in Saudi Arabia.

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Angola

ANCESTORS

Angola Angola

See Death, Grief, and Ancestors.

he Republic of Angola is located on the southwest coast of Africa on the Atlantic Ocean. This former Portuguese colony has had a turbulent history since gaining independence in 1975. Torn by a long, bitter and devastating civil war, the nation is still trying to end this conflict.

GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa, covering an area larger than Texas and California combined. A small part of the nation - a coastal area called CABINDA - is separated from the rest of Angola by a strip of land belonging to neighboring country CONGO (KINSHASA). Angola is rich in natural resources and has great potential for industry and economic prosperity. However, since independence, frequent civil unrest has slowed Angola's development. The capital of Angola is Luanda, a coastal city that was once an important slave trading port for the Portuguese. Despite boasting modern skyscrapers, an international airport and a state university, Luanda was badly damaged by the civil war. In addition, refugees fleeing fighting in the countryside are crowding into the poorer parts of the city, overwhelming public services.

* Escarpment land or rocks

long, cliff-like ridge of

* navigable deep and wide enough to allow ships to pass * tributary

river that flows into another

landforms. Almost two thirds of Angola is made up of extensive interior plateaux and highlands - including the Congo Highlands, the Malanje Plateau and the Central Highlands. These features average 3,150 to 4,430 feet in elevation, with some peaks reaching as high as 8,465 feet. To the west of these areas the land drops in a series of dramatic escarpments* to a narrow coastal plain, bisected by fertile river valleys and dotted with natural harbours. Most of Angola's rivers originate in the interior highlands and flow through the coastal plains to the sea. Few of these are navigable any distance inland*. Several rivers are tributaries* of the RIVER CONGO and the RIVER ZAMBEZI. One of Angola's largest rivers, the Kubango, flows into the Okavango Swamp - a vast swampy area in northern BOTSWANA. Climate. With the exception of the temperate central highlands, Angola's climate is predominantly tropical. Rainfall in tropical regions is seasonal and occurs mainly between October and May. Parts of southern and eastern Angola have a drier climate, and the southernmost part of the country borders the great KALAHARI DESERT. The Benguela Current - a cold, northward-flowing ocean current - brings both an arid climate and rich fishing grounds to Angola's coastal region.

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

vegetation and wildlife. A large part of Angola is covered with savanna*. To the north, these meadows have scattered trees, while to the south the

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Angola

n Co

cabin

is Riv

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (Congo, Kinshasa)

matadi

a KW

influence

Malanje

is Riv

anz

Kasai-Flow

DS LAN LOW AL AST CO

Luanda

200 miles 200 kilometers

HEADQUARTERS

Lobito Benguela

Crab ANGOLA

Huambo

Luena

PLATEAU

Mt. Môco 8.596 ft.

R sorry

i r

lubango

May be

Tag

I have

Mong u iv Za

R go ban Cu

just a river

ZAMBIA

BOTSUANA UND MIBIA

See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

Savanna consists of low, thorny shrubs. Dense rainforests are scattered across the northern half of the country, especially in Cabinda. Angola once had more extensive rainforests, but since colonial times many have been cut down by the logging industry to make way for agriculture. One of the few plants to survive in the desert regions of far southwest Angola is the tumboa, an unusual plant with a very deep root and two broad, 10-foot long leaves that spread across the ground. Angola's wildlife is typical of other grassland regions of Africa. Mammals include elephant, hippo, rhino, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest, leopard, lion and various species of antelope and monkeys. Angola is also home to many species of birds and a wide variety of reptiles, including crocodiles. Among the most dangerous animal species in Angola is an insect - the tsetse fly, which transmits diseases that harm both humans and livestock. Marine life thrives in the ocean off the coast of Angola, particularly in the waters traversed by the Benguela Current. agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Agriculture is the main economic activity in many areas of Angola. About 80 percent of Angolans engage in subsistence farming, in which families only grow enough food for their own needs. One of the most important food crops is cassava (or cassava), a plant with thick, starchy roots that are boiled and boiled

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Angola * More

* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

See map in Minerals and Mining (Vol. 3).

▲ ▲

1800 1900 2000

▲

1700

▲

1600

▲

1500

▲

1400

▲

* first millennium AD to 1000

years from the 1

1483 Portuguese explorers reach Angola

1975 Portugal grants independence to Angola.

1976 The MPLA establishes the People's Republic of Angola.

1990 MPLA establishes multi-party democracy.

1992 Founding of the Democratic Republic of Angola.

eaten like potatoes. Other important crops are corn*, potatoes, beans, millet (a type of grain), bananas, peanuts, rice and wheat. During the colonial period, Angola grew several profitable cash crops* for export, including cotton and coffee. These commercial crops declined dramatically after independence as a result of changing economic policies and years of civil war. Despite this, crops such as tobacco, coffee, bananas, sisal, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton are still grown commercially. Subsistence farmers in Angola raise a variety of livestock including sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. Cattle farming is most successful in southern Angola, where the disease-carrying tsetse fly is less of a problem than in other parts of the country. Forestry is concentrated in Cabinda, where the dense rainforests provide valuable timber. Portuguese colonists developed a thriving fishing industry off the coast of Angola, supplying fish for both export and local markets. After 1975, however, local fish stocks dwindled and Angola's fishing industry declined. industry and mining. Before independence, Angola enjoyed the expansion of industrial activities, particularly manufacturing and construction. As with commercial agriculture, the post-independence upheaval disrupted Angola's industry and led to its decline. Manufacturing in Angola today is more focused on meeting domestic needs than producing goods for export. The main production activities are oil refining, food processing, brewing, textile manufacturing and the manufacture of building materials. An important production center is the city of Luanda. The electricity needed to run Angola's industry comes from hydroelectric power plants that use the energy of the country's major rivers. Mining plays a very important role in Angola's economy. The country's main exports are oil and diamonds. Oil alone, most of which comes from Cabinda, accounts for more than 90 percent of Angola's export earnings. Although Angola's iron mines have been dormant since 1975, the nation produces other minerals including phosphates, manganese and copper. The country also has natural gas reserves.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT In ancient times, hunting and gathering societies inhabited what is now Angola. Sometime in the first millennium AD*, great migrations from other parts of southern Africa brought Bantu-speaking peoples to the region. These groups eventually established a series of independent, centralized kingdoms, the most important of which was the Congo. Angola later took its name from another early kingdom known as Ngola. The Colonial Era. Portuguese explorers arrived in Angola in 1483. They traded with the residents and worked to convert them to Christianity. Over the next few centuries, Portugal became increasingly involved in the African slave trade, and several Angolan kingdoms were

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Angola Angolan Art Angola has a rich artistic heritage. Masks, sculptures and other works of art are made of ceramics, wood, ivory and malachite (a type of green stone). These pieces often have symbolic meaning, representing themes such as life and death or the celebration of a harvest. Angola's chokwe are known for their fine wood carvings, and Cabinda residents are praised for their ivory carvings. Another form of Angolan art is the decoration of the body, including very elaborate hairstyles, which is worn by the Nyaneka and Nkhumbi groups.

* Nationalist dedicated to the interests and culture of his country

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

* communist referring to communism, a system in which land, goods and means of production belong to the state or community rather than individuals. * Cold War era with strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II

eventually destroyed because they opposed slavery. Portuguese settlers soon came to dominate Angola's coast, organizing the local economy around the supply of slaves to Brazil, Portugal's South American colony. Portugal's claims to dominion over the lands and people of Angola were officially recognized by other European governments in 1891. Then Portugal extended its authority beyond the coastal region of Angola. This expansion led to a dramatic growth in export products, mainly cash crops grown by Portuguese settlers. Some Angolan groups were quite successful in competing economically with the Portuguese colonists. Nonetheless, all came under Portuguese control between 1890 and 1922. The further expansion of Portuguese colonial power in the early 1900s caused great difficulties for both Africans and Afro-Portugueses - people of both African and Portuguese descent. Many of these people were pushed out of the administrative and commercial jobs that dominated them in earlier years, and they had few opportunities to achieve commercial success. As a result, nationalist* movements emerged in Luanda and other coastal cities. Nationalist leaders spoke out against forced labour, racism and other abuses and called for Angola's independence. When Angola officially became an overseas province of Portugal in 1951, the Angolan people faced further ill-treatment by the Portuguese authorities. Tensions mounted, leading to a serious rebellion against Portuguese rule in 1961. This proved to be a turning point in Angola's history as more and more people were drawn into the struggle for independence. By the late 1960s, several nationalist groups had launched guerrilla* operations against the Portuguese government. Each group also fought for power. An independent Angola. Portugal gave Angola its independence on November 11, 1975. However, it did not formally transfer power to any of the competing nationalist groups. One group, the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), gained control of most of the country and established a communist* state in 1976 called the People's Republic of Angola. Between the three main groups MPLA, FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) – fomenting a long and bitter civil war. Cold War* politics contributed to the dispute because the MPLA was backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba, while UNITA was backed by SOUTH AFRICA and the United States. In addition, the Angolan government supported neighboring NAMIBIA in its fight for independence from South Africa. As the complex struggle dragged on in Angola, it hampered economic progress and efforts to advance social programs. Signs of hope for an end to the fighting began to appear in the late 1980s. Talks between Angola, Cuba, South Africa and the United States resulted in a series of agreements for Namibian independence and the withdrawal of Cuban troops who had supported the MPLA. When the last Cuban armed forces left Angola in 1991, peace finally seemed possible. In 1990 the MPLA had voted to transform itself into a democratic party, establish a multi-party system and create politics that gave individuals

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Angola and companies play a bigger role in the economy. These changes led to the formation of a new democratic government in 1992 and the birth of the Republic of Angola. Since 1979, Angolan politics has been dominated by two people: José Eduardo dos Santos, the nation's president and leader of the MPLA, and Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA. Each enjoys support from different ethnic groups within the country. Despite the establishment of a democracy, progress in Angola is not easy to achieve. The economy has been slow to develop and improve, and smuggling - mainly of diamonds - has done much damage. Education and medical care are inadequate, malnutrition is rampant, and infant mortality is rampant. In addition, the MPLA and UNITA continue to compete fiercely for control. Fighting has erupted in various parts of the country since 1992, and a return to full-blown civil war remains a possibility. Even in times of relative peace, many Angolans are killed or injured by the millions of landmines still buried in the ground.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES

A parade held in Luanda, the capital of Angola, in 1975 to celebrate the country's independence from Portugal.

The majority of Angolans are members of different Bantu-speaking groups, each with their own distinct culture and language. Other Angolans are of Portuguese or other European descent, and a few isolated groups of a Khoisan group known as the !Kung live in the remote south-east corner of the country. Portuguese is the official language and is spoken by

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Angola Republic of Angola

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $1,000

POPULATION: 10,600,000 (estimated population) AREA: 481,351 square miles. (1,246,700 km²) LANGUAGES: Portuguese (official); Bantu languages (at least 55) NATIONAL CURRENCY: Kwanza MAIN RELIGIONS: Traditional 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% CITIES: Luanda (capital), 2,677,000 (2000 est.); Lobito, Benguela, Malanje, Huambo, Cabinda, Lubango ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 0 in southwest coastal desert to 70 inches (1,780 mm) in extreme north

See Color Plate 7, Vol. 3.

* Polygamy marriage in which a man has more than one wife or a woman has more than one husband

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: coffee, sisal, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, bananas, cassava, corn, timber, fish, livestock Manufacturing: food and beverage processing, textiles, cement, petroleum refining, fish processing, brewing, tobacco products Mining: petroleum, diamonds , Iron Ore, Copper, Feldspar, Phosphates, Gold, Bauxite, Uranium GOVERNMENT: Independence from Portugal, 1975. President elected by general suffrage. Governing Bodies: Assembleia Nacional with 220 members (elected), Council of Ministers appointed by the President. HEAD OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1975-1979 Antonio Agostinho Neto 1979- José Eduardo dos Santos ARMED FORCES: 114,000 (2000 est.) EDUCATION: Compulsory for 7-15 years; Literacy rate 40%

many angolans. However, most groups also speak their own native language. As Bantu-speaking groups settled in modern-day Angola, each formed a culture based on the particular type of environment in which they lived. The largest group are the Ovimbundu. They live mainly in the central highlands of Angola, where the climate is well suited to agriculture. Over time, the Ovimbundu have developed extensive farming communities with large populations. Those living in the drier areas to the south also raise livestock. Many Ovimbundu have migrated to the cities of Benguela, Lobito and Luanda. The second largest group in Angola, the Mbundu dominate the capital Luanda and other coastal cities and the Malanje Highlands to the east. Mbundu culture has its roots in the ancient warrior state of Ngola. Among the many other groups in Angola are the Ngangela, Ovambo and Chokwe. Although some Angolans continue to follow traditional religions, most have embraced Christianity. Roman Catholicism is particularly well established among the Ovimbundu. Various Protestant faiths have strong followings among other Bantu groups. Despite the influence of European culture and Christianity, most Angolan peoples still share certain Bantu traditions. Extended families are central to social life, polygamy* is widespread and ancestors are deeply respected. Forms of witchcraft are still practiced in many areas, including among people who have converted to Christianity. Another ancient tradition that has survived to this day is Angola's rich oral literature - stories passed down for many generations.

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Animals, domestic animals The country's rural residents often follow the same traditions and ways of life as their ancestors. Others, especially city dwellers, have embraced a more modern lifestyle. In all regions and walks of life, Angolans maintain longstanding ethnic loyalties and distinctions. The many differences that enrich Angola's culture continue to fuel the nation's political unrest. (See also Bantu Peoples; Colonialism in Africa; Diseases; Ethnic Groups and Identity; Forests and Forestry; Independence Movements; Languages; Livestock; Minerals and Mining; Neto, Agostinho; Religion and Ritual.)

Animals, Animals, Pets Pets * domesticated, kept by humans as livestock or pets

* Evolutionary changes in groups of organisms that occur over time

von

frikaners have been breeding animals for their own use for thousands of years. Species of domesticated* animals spread from about 3000 BC. slowly southwards through Africa. or earlier, and cattle raising became a traditional way of life across much of the continent. Cattle, in particular, have played a central role in the social, economic and religious life of many African peoples. domestication. The process of domestication begins with wild animals. The definition of domestication states that animals have been domesticated when they have been incorporated into the social fabric of a human community as objects that humans can own, barter, buy, sell, and inherit. Biologically speaking, domestication is something like evolution*. A small number of wild animals are separated from the other members of their species. Over time, these animals become accustomed to living with humans, who can control their breeding to emphasize certain traits. To be domesticated, an animal must have a temperament that allows it to accept human control and live in close contact with humans and other animals. It must also reproduce well in captivity. Cattle, sheep and goats have these characteristics. In addition, elephants are occasionally trained for work and used in war in ancient times. Other potentially useful animals -- like antelope -- don't have these traits, which likely explains why they've remained wild. Although some animal species appear to have been domesticated in Africa, many species first became part of the human community in Asia, arriving in Northeast Africa from the Middle East or Arabia. The ancient Egyptians had dogs, cats and all kinds of domestic animals found in Africa today. However, it took a long time for domesticated species to spread south. Most African groups probably only adopted such animals when their populations had grown too large to be sustained by hunting. Diseases, particularly sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) carried by the tsetse fly, prevented some animals from thriving very far south of the Sahara. African cattle. Africa has long been a melting pot for different types of cattle. Rock paintings found in central Sahara mountains indicate that people herded and milked cattle there as early as 6,500 years ago, when the region was wetter and greener than it is today. A

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Animals, domestic cats Meow cats have been family pets since ancient times. The cat was first identified around or before 1500 BC. Domesticated in Egypt, most likely to protect grain stores from mice and other rodents. Archaeologists have found many ancient images of domestic cats, including statues, cat-shaped toys and a carving of a girl holding a kitten. In the 700s B.C. Egypt experienced a great revival of animal worship. One of the most popular cults was Bastet, the cat goddess. An impressive temple was built for her, and believers left mummified cats with decorative masks and drapes in her honor. Huge cat cemeteries were nearby. The Greek historian Herodotus recorded that whenever a cat died, the Egyptians would shave their eyebrows as a sign of mourning. * shepherd associated with or dependent on herding * ritualistic religious ceremony following a set pattern * dowry paid by a bridegroom's family to that of his wife-to-be * vulnerable

open to damage or attack

a thousand years later, cattle ranching was well established in the Sahara. Pastoralist* groups cared for longhorn and shorthorn cattle, originally domesticated in Europe and Asia, and native shorthorn cattle, domesticated in North Africa. Beginning about 5,000 years ago, the increasing aridity of the Sahara drove these peoples south and east. They introduced cattle to the Nile Valley, Ethiopia and northern Kenya. Around the same time, zebu, or hump cattle, were brought to Ethiopia from India and western Asia. They interbred with longhorn and shorthorn cattle and gave rise to a new breed called the Sanga, which spread to central and southern Africa. Since then, crossbreeding has produced dozens of species of cattle, including newer breeds of zebu, replacing the sanga in parts of North and East Africa. Tsetse flies and parasites have prevented cattle from becoming numerous in Africa's rainforest regions, although efforts are being made to introduce breeds resistant to the sleeping sickness. The many African cattle breeds are used in a variety of ways. Some pastoral peoples keep the animals primarily for milk, while other groups also eat the meat. Cattle are often used to pull plows, power water wheels or flour mills, and carry loads. Sometimes cattle are ridden. In many pastoral societies, cattle are seen not only as a convenient source of food, but also as a living symbol of well-being and prosperity—both spiritual and economic. The pastoralists of Kenya do not kill their livestock for food, although they consume milk and blood from live animals and use the skins of dead animals. Cattle play an important role in many ancient African rituals*, including offerings and the passing of dowry* from the groom's family to the bride's family. beasts of burden. The dromedary, or one-humped Arabian camel, is found in the North African desert and in the lands along its southern edge. All dromedaries are domesticated. About 70 percent of the world's camels live in the Sahel, northern Kenya and the lowlands of northeast Africa, including Egypt. Since camels are extremely susceptible* to diseases such as sleeping sickness, they cannot survive in wetter regions where the tsetse fly lives. In the Sahel and the north-eastern lowlands, nomadic herders raise camels almost exclusively for their milk production, while in western Sudan and parts of Kenya, camels are used for meat and transport. In North Sudan and North Africa, camels are mainly used for riding and carrying loads. The main advantage of these animals is that they require much less water than cattle. They can tolerate desert conditions and carry loads of up to 350 pounds over long distances. For hundreds of years, caravans – groups of traders and travelers traveling together – have crossed the Sahara with the help of camels. As late as the early 1900s, traditional salt trading caravans included up to 20,000 animals. Horses came to Egypt from western Asia about 3,500 years ago. In many parts of the continent, they suffer from both sleeping sickness and African horse disease — a disease that can kill 90 percent of a herd. Most horses are found in North Africa, the Sahara and Sahel, and parts of West Africa. Horses originally brought over by European settlers live in South Africa.

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Animals, domestic animals Unlike horses, donkeys were domesticated in Africa in the Nile Valley about 6,000 years ago. More than half of the donkeys in Africa today live near the Nile region, in north-eastern Africa and in the Sahel. People ride donkeys and use them to pull plows and carry firewood, water, and other loads.

* native

resident in a specific place

Dromedaries (one-humped camels) like this one can survive longer without water than any other mammal. This characteristic makes them ideally suited to life in the desert regions of North Africa.

Animals bred for food and other products. Domestic sheep from western Asia were brought to Egypt 5,000 years ago. African sheep today are descended from several basic types, some of which have fat tails or rumps that provide an extremely valuable food source. Sheep throughout Africa produce milk and meat. Pastoral groups in north-west and north-east Africa prefer native* breeds that tolerate drought. In southern Africa, European settlers introduced breeds such as the Persian Merino and Blackhead sheep for the production of fine wool. Goats - also first domesticated in western Asia - have evolved into various African breeds over the centuries. All of them are used for meat and hides, although some are also milked. In the Sahel on the

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Animals, domestic animals See Color Plate 2, Vol. 4.

Many domesticated animals in Africa, like this donkey, are used to pull carts or carry passengers.

On the edge of the Sahara, medium-sized goats have adapted to the very dry pastures of the region. One of these breeds of goats, the Red Sokoto, has a very fine coat valued by leatherworkers in Morocco and Nigeria. In wetter areas of West Africa and Sudan, farmers raise smaller animals called pygmy goats. Angora goats were introduced to southern Africa in the 18th century, and since then the region has become a major producer of mohair - the long, woolly hair of the Angora goat. In the past, pigs did not play a major role in Africa. Muslim peoples have religious restrictions on eating their meat. In addition, pigs are more suited to farm life than to the pastoral life of many African peoples. Pigs are also susceptible to many African diseases and parasites. Most of the continent's domestic pigs are raised on large, European-style commercial farms. However, pigs are gradually being introduced into indigenous peoples' agricultural systems, where they provide meat in areas lacking other sources of meat. Various smaller animals are also bred for food in Africa. The guinea fowl, a chicken-like bird, originated in Africa and was domesticated there. European explorers later carried it to other parts of the world. Africans also raise chickens. In some parts of West Africa, people have bred the African giant rat and the brown rat as food animals.

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Annan, Kofi crossing. Over the last 2,000 years, African domestic animals have been crossed with foreign breeds brought from Europe by Arab and Asian traders and more recently by colonial settlers. The combination of evolution and controlled breeding produced many new breeds with distinctive traits, such as the rounded horns of cattle from the Lake Chad region of the Sahel. During the 20th century, Africans demanded improved livestock—animals that would be more productive than African breeds and better suited to the African environment than foreign livestock. This demand led to many experimental breeding programs. For example, the native cattle of southern Ethiopia, which can survive in a semi-desert environment, have been crossed with cattle from northern Europe, which produce large quantities of milk and beef. Such practices increase beef and milk production in the short term, but crossbreeding can have serious long-term impacts on the ecosystem. The unique genetic makeup of local livestock breeds can be lost in the process, and new breeds may be less resilient than native animals to disease or environmental stresses such as drought. People are now realizing that long-established native species are as much a part of the African environment as wildlife. As a result, some livestock “improvement” projects have been shelved, and Africans are struggling to maintain the remaining herds of purely native livestock. (See also Agriculture, Climate, Diseases, Ecosystems, Livestock, Pests and Pest Control, Wildlife and Wildlife Parks.)

ANIMALS, WILD

Annan, Kofi 1938 - Ghanaian Diplomat

See wildlife and wildlife parks.

Elected Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) in 1997, Kofi Annan is the first Secretary-General from sub-Saharan Africa. This GHANA diplomat has worked for the UN since 1962, except for a brief stint in the 1970s when he was Ghana's Director of Tourism. Before starting his career in diplomacy, Annan attended colleges and graduate schools in Ghana, the United States and Switzerland. He has a bachelor's degree in economics and a master's degree in management. He is fluent in English, French and several African languages. Over the years, Annan has held several offices at the United Nations. He started out as a budget officer at the World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland. He later served at the UN Economic Commission for Africa in Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA. As Under-Secretary-General in the mid-1990s, he oversaw UN peacekeeping operations in SOMALIA and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As Secretary-General, Annan has focused on the international community's commitment to helping Africa's developing countries. Annan has

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Annan Kofi also worked to improve relations between the United Nations and the United States, which were strained in the early 1990s. (See also United Nations in Africa.)

Antananarivo

Apartheid * Discriminierungsgruppe

unfair treatment of a

Located on hills overlooking the Ikopa and Betsiboka rivers, Antananarivo is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. A Merina king named Andrianjaka conquered the site in the early 17th century. Antananarivo, meaning "City of a Thousand", was named after the guard of 1,000 men who defended it after Andrianjaka's conquest. Around 1800 the Merina kingdoms gained control of Madagascar and Antananarivo became the center of the most important of these states. The Merina restricted access to the city by refusing to build roads and sometimes forbidding westerners. Nevertheless, missionaries, traders and architects eventually arrived in the city and brought European influence with them. When the French made Madagascar a colony in 1896, they renamed the city Tananarive. In the early 1900s they renovated the city, widening its streets and building roads and railway lines to connect it to the coast. During French rule, the city's population grew by almost 200,000 people. Madagascar gained independence in 1960 and after a revolution in 1972, the city regained its original name. Today Antananarivo is the economic and political center of the country with almost one million inhabitants.

Partheid, a system of racial segregation, was official government policy in the Republic of SOUTH AFRICA from 1948 to 1994. Under apartheid, South African blacks, Asians and people of mixed race, referred to as “coloreds”, were systematically segregated from white society, deprived of any form of government participation and subjected to all forms of discrimination*. The idea of white supremacy and racial discrimination had been accepted in South Africa before 1948, and the white South African governments had implemented various racial segregation policies. However, this policy did not become law until after the 1948 elections, which were won by the pro-segregation National Party. In the 1950s and 1960s, the South African government passed a series of laws classifying people by race. These laws deprived blacks, blacks, and Asians of most basic rights — stripping them of their property, restricting their movements and activities within the country, and forcing blacks to relocate to special “reservations” outside of white society. The laws affected millions of people. They separated South Africans in all walks of life and gave total control of the nation to a tiny white minority. By the 1960s, other nations had begun to criticize South Africa for its apartheid policies. At the same time, the number of black southern states is growing

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Arabs in Africa

* lift

reverse a law

Arabs in Africa

Africans began protesting the apartheid laws. Partly in response, the government accelerated a policy of creating independent, self-governing "homelands" in which black South Africans could develop their own societies. This policy, aimed at promoting black segregation, proved a failure. The homelands consisted of poor quality land, often divided into small blocks of territory. They did not have the resources to become economically self-sufficient and truly independent. Due to international pressure, increasing unrest in South Africa and deteriorating economic conditions at home, the South African government was forced to abandon its apartheid policy. In 1991, the government under President De Klerk* repealed the basic apartheid laws. Three years later, the passage of a new constitution gave equal rights to all South Africans. Despite these changes, apartheid left a history of racial conflict, poverty and inequalities in education, housing and welfare that will affect South Africa for many years to come. (See also Afrikaner Republics; Biko, Steve; Cape Colored People; De Klerk, Frederik Willem; Mandela, Nelson; Southern Africa, History; Tutu, Desmond Mpilo; Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch.)

Ravens have been in Africa since at least AD 600, when humans from the Arabian Peninsula conquered Egypt and Libya. The Arabs eventually controlled much of North Africa. Arabic culture - including the Arabic language and the practice of Islam - became so widespread that Egypt, Libya, ALGERIA, TUNISIA and MOROCCO are now considered part of the Arab world. Other regions of Africa were also influenced by contacts with Arab culture, mainly through trade. North Africa. In 640, an Arab force invaded Egypt, then part of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern part of the Roman Empire). From Egypt, various Arab generals moved west and took over the North West African coast. This area known as MAGHREB was inhabited by the BERBERS, who surrendered in large numbers to the invaders and embraced Islam. By 705 the Maghreb had become a province under the control of the Muslim Umayyad dynasty. As colonizers, the Arabs brought their religion, customs and language to the region. East Africa. East Africa lies across the Red Sea from the Arabian Peninsula, the birthplace of Islam and much of Arabic culture. People and goods traveled between the two regions well before the rise of Islam in the 6th century. ETHIOPIA was one of the first areas in East Africa to be influenced by Arabic culture. Around AD 100, people from southern Arabia arrived in Ethiopia by sea, bringing with them their language and ability to build in stone. Trade relations between Arabs and the local population contributed to the emergence of the Aksumites, who founded the kingdom of AKSUM in the Ethiopian highlands. Ethiopians also crossed the Red Sea into southern Arabia.

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* Secession formal withdrawal from an organization or country

* Genocide intentional and systematic killing of a specific ethnic, religious or national group

By the 900s, many peoples along the coast of SOMALIA and in the interior lowlands had converted to Islam, and a number of Islamic states had been established. These states controlled trade in the region and posed a threat to the Christian communities that had arisen in Ethiopia. West of Ethiopia, NUBIA (in modern-day SUDAN) consisted of several Christian kingdoms. By 1300, these kingdoms had fallen to Muslims from Egypt. Their defeat increased the threat of a Muslim invasion of the Christian state of Ethiopia. Immigrant Arabs intermarried with the people of Nubia and introduced the Arabic language and the practice of Islam, both of which quickly spread throughout much of the southern Nile Valley. In modern times, Arab Muslims have supported ERITREAS' secession* from Ethiopia. To counter Muslim pressure, Ethiopia has sought other allies, including the nation of Israel. Meanwhile, Muslim groups in Sudan have tried to make the country fully Muslim and Arab. These efforts have led to regular outbreaks of genocide* against South Sudan's non-Muslims by Arabs seeking to invade their land and control its oil resources. The Swahili Coast. Known to the ancient Arabs as the land of the Zanj, the Swahili Coast stretches from present-day Somalia to MOZAMBIQUE. Easily accessible by sea from southern Arabia, this region was an ideal place for trade between Africans and Arabs even before the rise of Islam. Later, Arab merchants settled in the region's growing city-states, such as Mombasa and Kilwa. By AD 900, the East African coast had developed into a prosperous trading center. Islam became a major force along the Swahili coast. By adapting to local traditions, the religion gained new adherents. Some people converted to Islam because it opened up opportunities for trade and social advancement. The blending of Arabic and African traditions in this region also led to the emergence of the Swahili civilization in the 1000s and 1100s. After peaking in the 1200s and 1300s, this civilization declined as the region was colonized by people from Portugal and Oman in the Arabian Peninsula.

* diplomatic practice of managing relations between nations without warfare

Western Africa. Trade, intermarriage, and shared religious beliefs shaped relations between Arabs in North Africa and the peoples of West Africa. Although West Africa never saw significant Arab migration, Islamic religion and culture prevailed and spread throughout the region. Islamic traditions coexisted with local customs and beliefs. In many West African kingdoms, educated Muslims played a key role in administration and diplomacy*. The work of Islamic scholars from the Niger region (now MALI) became famous throughout the Muslim world. In the mid-17th century, a strictly Islamic religious movement swept through much of West Africa. When Europeans arrived in Africa, they were confronted with this intense religious culture, which influenced their politics during the colonial era. Arab influence is still very strong in parts of MAURITANIA, Mali, NIGER and CHAD. In these countries, as in other parts of Africa, Arabic culture is admired; As a result, many people claim to have Arabic ancestry.

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* Nationalism Devotion to the interests and culture of one's own country

Muslim schools like this one in Fez, Morocco, educate young people through the study of the Koran, the holy book of Islam.

Colonial and post-colonial period. Contact between Arabs and sub-Saharan Africans - including trade and migration - declined during the colonial era. The policies of the European colonial governments changed the relations that had existed between Africa and the Arab world. Europeans replaced Islamic learning with Western education, replaced the Arabic alphabet with the Roman alphabet in the writing of many African languages, and emphasized Arabic involvement in the African slave trade. Although the fight against European colonialism brought Arab and African leaders closer together, the bond between them was based on nationalism* rather than trade or culture. In 1963, African and Arab resistance to colonialism led to the founding of the ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY (OAU). The OAU played a significant role in strengthening ties between the two groups. Despite some suspicion and distrust on both sides, African and Arab leaders managed to work together on matters of common concern such as economic development. Numerous African nations, including Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Somalia and Djibouti, also joined the Arab League, a regional organization of Arab states.

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Arabs in Africa * sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

* Cold War era with strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II

Archeology and Prehistory * Archeology refers to the study of past human cultures and societies, usually through the excavation of ruins

* Paleontologist Scientist who studies prehistoric life through fossils and other remains

In 1967 many nations of sub-Saharan Africa* supported Egypt in the Suez Canal War against Israel. However, some recent conflicts in Africa - such as a civil war in Chad - have strained Afro-Arab relations by dividing Arabs and Arabic-speaking or Muslim Africans. Intervention in African affairs by Arab leaders like Muammar al-QADDAFI of Libya has also spooked some African leaders, persuading them to turn to the West for help to counter Arab power. Since the end of the Cold War*, some leaders in sub-Saharan Africa have been alarmed by Islam's increasing political role in North Africa and attempts to make it a powerful force in other African countries with large Muslim communities. At the same time, however, a number of Muslim nations in North Africa have experienced internal disputes over territories and other matters. These unresolved issues limit the relationship between Africa and the Arab world. (See also Ethnic Groups and Identity, Islam in Africa, Languages, North Africa: Geography and Population, North Africa: History and Cultures, Sudanic Empires of West Africa, Trade.)

frica's archaeological* heritage is both ancient and rich. Several million years ago, the first ancestors of humans appeared in Africa. The first modern humans appeared there around 100,000 years ago. Since that time, a pageant has unfolded across the vast and varied landscapes of the continent. A variety of cultures arose, peoples immigrated, empires rose and fell, and Africans interacted with traders and invaders from other parts of the world. Because many African cultures did not use a written language until the last century or two, historical records of Africa's past are scarce. However, to archaeologists, paleontologists* and others trained in their interpretation, bricks and stones, broken pots and buried pearls, and graves and bones can speak as clearly as words on a page. Archaeology, the study of the physical footprints left by people in the past, is the primary source of information about how Africans lived at different times throughout their long history. The work of archaeologists is not limited to studying great and well-known sites like the PYRAMIDS of ancient Egypt. As they uncover prehistoric murals in caves in the SAHARA DESERT, unearth ancient imperial cities in West Africa, and unearth tools from centuries-old villages in Central Africa, archaeologists are painting an increasingly complex and vivid picture of Africa's past.

INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN ARCHEOLOGY African archeology is as diverse as the cultures and geographical regions of the continent. The objects it examines range from simple stone tools used by ancient human ancestors to the ruins of great civilizations. African archeology not only reveals something from the continent's most distant past, it also provides a background for understanding the traditions and roots of the many ethnic groups living in Africa today.

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* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

See Color Plate 1, Vol. 3.

* native

resident in a specific place

Changing perspectives on the African past. Ideas about Africa's past have changed since the mid-20th century. Before that time, Africa was sometimes referred to as "the continent without a past". People outside of Africa linked ancient Egypt to other major civilizations of the ancient world. They viewed North Africa and modern Egypt, which had been colonized and influenced by Arabs following the rise of the Islamic religion, as part of the Arab world. Most of the rest of Africa – sub-Saharan sub-Saharan Africa* – lacked written history, leading some people to believe that archaeological history was also lacking. Politics and racism also shaped outsiders' attitudes toward African archaeology. Europeans based much of the political and social structure of their colonies in Africa on the notion that black Africans were inferior to white and "uncivilized." The Great Zimbabwe ruins controversy shows how these attitudes affected African archaeology. Great Zimbabwe is a collection of impressive stone ruins in the South African country of Zimbabwe (formerly the British colony of Rhodesia). Some white archaeologists thought Africans built Great Zimbabwe. Many others, however, have argued that the site's builders were ancient navigators from the Mediterranean, Arabia, or even China - peoples from more advanced civilizations than Africa, according to them. Since the 1950's, archaeologists using new scientific methods have shown beyond doubt that the ancestors of the SHONA and other African groups built Great Zimbabwe and other stone structures as political and religious centers. Archeology is continually expanding Africans' knowledge of their history. Noting that archeology has revealed unknown civilizations and cultures, Mali's national director for arts and culture called on sub-Saharan African nations to "make more use of archeology to discover the truth about their past". They must also take steps to protect Africa's archaeological heritage from destruction or misuse. history and prehistory. Archeology can be divided into two basic categories. Historical archeology deals with periods that have written records made either by locals or by outsiders. Prehistoric archeology studies cultures or times without written records. Written history only touches the edges of Africa's past. Although Egypt had the written language before 2000 B.C. The ancient Egyptians wrote little about Africa outside of the Nile Valley. Some ancient Greek and Roman scholars left written accounts of Egypt and North Africa, but their descriptions do not provide much accurate information about the indigenous* peoples of these regions. The civilization that arose in Ethiopia around AD 400 also kept written records. Like the Egyptians, however, the ancient Ethiopians said little about lands beyond their own borders. Much later, beginning in the 9th century AD, Arabs documented their visits to the southern regions of the Sahara and the East African coast. Europeans began exploring the African coast in the 14th century, but their descriptions of local peoples and cultures are not always reliable. For much of the continent, recorded history is only a century or two old. As

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Archeology and Prehistory

* Artifact in archeology, an ornament, tool, weapon, or other man-made item

Consequently, prehistoric archeology is the main key to unlocking Africa's past. Archaeologists studying prehistoric Africa can use various research tools to complete the picture of the past. Paleontology, which focuses on the physical remains of early humans, offers clues to the evolution* of prehistoric peoples. Another tool is oral history, the traditions, myths and stories of a group passed down from generation to generation in spoken form. In some societies, oral history provides useful knowledge about the past century or two. Historical linguistics, another tool, looks at the relationships between languages and how they have changed over time. There may be evidence of past migrations and relationships between ethnic groups. Ethnography, the study of modern-day ethnic groups and their immediate ancestors, helps archaeologists trace connections between the past and the present. Geography and geology provide insights into the physical landscapes that ancient peoples inhabited. Artifacts* are of course the best-known objects of archaeological research. By examining tools and other material remains of past cultures, archaeologists can find clues to how people lived long ago.

* domesticated by humans as livestock or pets

The Stone Age in Africa. Prehistoric archaeologists divide the past into different periods based on the types of tools that humans made. Some of these periods are grouped together under the name Stone Age. Roughly speaking, the Early Stone Age in Africa began around 2.6 million years ago when human ancestors fashioned the first large, hand-held stone cutting tools to carve animal carcasses. Scientists believe these early creatures hunted small game and searched for carcasses that had been killed by large animals. This way of life lasted until about 200,000 years ago. During the Middle Stone Age, around 200,000 to 45,000 years ago, large stone tools were replaced by smaller tools made of sharp flakes hammered from specially prepared rock. As in the Neolithic Age, people lived by hunting game and gathering wild food. Hunting probably played an increasing role in the Mesolithic. However, archaeologists differ on whether humans hunted big game and, if so, how and when they learned to do so. Africa's climate became cooler and drier during the Middle Stone Age, leading to environmental changes that challenged people to adapt to new conditions. Archaeologists studying the Middle Stone Age are trying to figure out what the environment was like and how it affected human life. In the Late Stone Age, which began around 45,000 years ago, very small stone blades and tools appeared, which people attached to handles made of wood or bone. Late Stone Age people hunted and gathered a wide variety of plants and animals, including seafood. They made beads, painted pictures on rock faces, and solemnly buried their dead. They also produced many artifacts from perishable organic materials such as wood, bone, leather, and shell, which have survived in some places. Among the oldest such artifacts are 10,000-year-old tools made of wood, bark and grass found in the Gwisho hot springs in Zambia. Around 7000 BC People living in what is now the Sahara had domesticated* cattle. Between 6500 and 4000 BC caused these climate changes

* Evolutionary changes in groups of organisms that occur over time

von

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Archeology and Prehistory

Archeology of North and West Africa

Tunisia Leptininus

your terminology

Aksum

ALGERIA

LIBYA EGYPT

MOROCCO

d Re

S A H A R A

DESERT

Dhar Tichet

MAURETANI Koumbi Saleh

Senegal Riv is

Karkarichinkat

Timbuktu

Koro Toro

Tschadsee

SUDAN

I have

Grossau

GUINEA Yagala Rock Shelter

LIBERIA

Daboya Begho

Always

NIGERIA

BENIN IVORY COAST

Only

Adrar Bows by Dimi Azelik

In this

SIERRA LEONE

may have

Gao

A LT DE R Jenne-jeno GE NI

SENEGAL

CHAD

MALI

NIGER

Akjoujt

Ile-Ife Iwo Eleru Igbo Ukwu

GHANA Asokrochona

Play Shum Laka

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

CAMEROON

Early Stone Age Site Middle Stone Age Site Late Stone Age Site Iron Age Site City

* Shepherd associated with or dependent on livestock farming

rancher societies to move south and introduce domestic animals to sub-Saharan Africa. The development of economies based on livestock and agriculture marked the end of the Neolithic period. Around the same time, iron processing technologies appeared in some regions and new cultures began to develop. Some of these new cultures were settled; others were nomads. Some were based on agriculture, others on pastoral activities*. In some desert areas and deep forests, small bands of hunter-gatherers continued to live as their ancestors had. Elsewhere, however, African societies became more complex and began to interact with each other. On the fringes of the continent, they began to encounter people of other races and cultures. Each region of Africa has followed its own path up to the present, a path that can be traced through archaeology.

NORTH AFRICA North Africa includes Egypt, the northern half of Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The archaeological heritage of the region ranges from the massive monuments of ancient Egypt to the faintest traces

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* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

The Romans, who conquered most of North Africa along the Mediterranean coast, built many temples and public buildings that still stand today. These ruins of a Roman bathhouse in Tunisia date back to the 20th century.

left by pastoralists thousands of years ago when the Sahara was a forested savanna* and not the desert it is today. Prehistory. One of the oldest archaeological sites in North Africa is Ternifine, Algeria. There, scientists have discovered both human fossils and stone axes interspersed with the remains of animals that lived more than 500,000 years ago. Early Stone Age axes have been found throughout North Africa, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean coast south. In the Sahara, they were often excavated near former springs and lake shores that supported life during wetter eras in the region's past. Archaeologists have studied Mesolithic settlement patterns at various locations in Egypt's Sahara. Some sites were quarries where people extracted stone for their tools. Others, especially those on old lake shores, served as workshops for shaping tools. In some places, people slaughtered their prey. Elsewhere, beyond the lakes, people may have slept, away from large animals that hunted near the water at night. This pattern continued for thousands of years.

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Archeology and Prehistory The Golden Mummies In 1996 an Egyptian donkey led to a sensational discovery in Bahareya, an oasis southwest of Cairo. The donkey stumbled into a hole that turned out to be a tomb containing dozens of mummies - preserved bodies of men, women and children wrapped in cloth and wearing masks painted in gold. The mummies date back to 100 AD and their decoration reflects a mix of Egyptian and Roman traditions. The mask of a woman combined a Roman hairstyle with an image of the ancient Egyptian goddess Isis. The tomb was part of a large cemetery that may contain thousands of mummies. Excavation of the entire site is expected to take ten years or more.

Mesolithic sites in the Sahara and MAGHREB (Northwest Africa) show that humans slaughtered rhinos, giraffes, horses, antelopes and gazelles. Some sites also contain stones that people may have used to grind wild plant food to make it easier to eat. A site in the Nile Valley with many fish bones, including some of very large deep-sea fish, is among the world's oldest evidence of fishing. By the late Stone Age, people in North Africa had become very efficient hunters of large herd animals such as wild cattle, gazelles, and sheep. About 20,000 years ago, they began making a new type of small stone blade, often sharp. Sometimes they would mount several small blades together on a hilt, a step towards more complex technology. Archaeologists have studied many Late Stone Age sites in the highlands and mountains of North Africa, but these may have just been seasonal hunting camps. Between 20,000 and 13,000 years ago, sea levels along the Mediterranean coast were much lower than they are today, and the coastal regions now submerged were probably the main centers of population. The Nile, much smaller than it is today, supported a narrow ribbon of life surrounded on both sides by extreme deserts. The people who lived there probably had to compete for resources - many skeletons show signs of violence, sometimes approaching the intensity of war. About 11,000 years ago, changes in rainfall patterns increased the flow of the Nile and also moistened the Sahara. Human population expanded into the Sahara, where some archaeological sites reveal fragments of early pottery and the bones of domesticated cattle. At first, people only stayed in the Sahara during the rainy season. But about 8,000 years ago they lived there year-round, digging wells and building round houses. They also erected large standing stones arranged in lines or circles, which may have had astronomical or religious significance. Several thousand years later, the climate changed again and much of the Sahara became too dry for humans. About 6,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers began herding, farming, and building villages in the Nile Valley. In some villages in northern Egypt, all the houses were similar in size and furnishings, suggesting that the residents belonged to a society of equals without class distinctions. In southern Egypt, however, burial sites show considerable variation, and some tombs contained richer items than others. This indicates that society was becoming more complex and social differences had emerged. Archaeologists have not determined whether the growing complexity of the region's social structures and technologies (e.g. pottery) reflect influences from Southwest Asia or from Eastern Sahara. Whatever the origin, this development in the Nile Valley eventually led to the rise of a great civilization. The historical period. Around 3100 BC A nation-state had emerged in Egypt, ruled by kings known as pharaohs. This ancient civilization has been revealed through written records and also archaeologists

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Archeology and Prehistory The Mystery of Igbo Ukwu Igbo Ukwu in forested southern Nigeria is an archaeological site which includes a burial mound dating to around 900 AD. Among the objects uncovered were more than 150,000 imported glass beads and many valuable ivory and metal objects. Rich and elaborate burials usually take place in highly developed societies, and tombs resembling those in Igbo Ukwu generally contain kings. However, around 900 AD this part of Nigeria did not have a large state. Who was buried at Igbo Ukwu remains a mystery - possibly the head of a religious brotherhood or a secret society. Such groups still have great influence in the region.

through monuments such as pyramids, temples, tombs, villages, palaces and other structures. South of ancient Egypt along the Nile was a land the Egyptians called Kush and the Arabs later called NUBIA. Today the area is divided between Egypt and SUDAN. Home to a black African civilization, Kush grew into an empire that sold gold, ivory, slaves and ostrich feathers to the Egyptians. Kush was closely associated with Egyptian society and even ruled Egypt from 760 to 656 BC. Like the Egyptians, the Cushites buried their rulers under pyramids. The Cushites actually built more pyramids than the Egyptians, although theirs were smaller. The largest Cushite pyramid discovered at a place called Nuri in Sudan measures about 30 meters on a side. Archaeologists have focused their efforts on the northern part of Kush, surveying as much as possible before a series of Nile dams inundated the area. Research in the southern Kush has focused on the imperial cities of Napata and MEROË. Egyptian civilization survived and went through many phases until AD 30. In that year Cleopatra, the last ruler descended from the pharaohs, died. By this time, Egypt had been under Greek and Roman influence and sometimes political control for several hundred years. Some important recent archaeological finds date from this Greco-Roman period. Among them are statues and buildings in the port of the city of Alexandria, which have been submerged by masses of water since ancient times. Greco-Roman ruins also dot the North African coast west of Egypt. For example, the Tunisian site of Leptiminus was a Mediterranean port that came under Roman rule in the 100s AD. In the 1990s, archaeologists excavated three Roman cemeteries there. One was in an area producing a distinctive type of pottery that was an important trade item in the Mediterranean for five centuries.

WEST AFRICA West Africa includes Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia and Senegal. The region extends north into the Sahara desert, but its coastal area consists mainly of tropical rainforest. Archaeologists believe that climatic changes - particularly alternating between wetter and drier periods - played a key role in shaping the region's past societies. Prehistory. Although archaeologists assume that parts of West Africa were inhabited more than 2 million years ago, they still do not have a clear picture of the earliest settlements. In 1995, scientists found a fossil jaw and seven teeth in Koro Toro, Chad. The fossils were from an Australopithecus, an early species of human ancestor previously known only from sites in eastern and southern Africa. Stone tools from both the Early Stone Age and the Middle Stone Age are widespread in West Africa, particularly in the Sahara and northern Nigeria. At Asokrochona in Ghana and other places in the southern part

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See Color Plate 2, Vol. 2.

See Color Plate 3, Vol. 3.

In the region, archaeologists have found tools from the Middle Stone Age that may have been used for woodworking. Neolithic relics show how the climate affected human life in the region. During a very dry period 20,000 to 12,000 years ago, the Sahara stretched further than it does today, and no traces of human life from that period have been found in the northern part of the region. In the following wetter years, the Sahara was reoccupied, probably from the north. Rock paintings of elephants and wild buffalo in areas that are now extremely dry may date from this period. Work at a number of sites in the Sahara has uncovered harpoons and remains of fish, crocodiles and hippos, suggesting that people of the period had access to lakes and rivers. In 1998, archaeologists discovered a boat more than 25 feet long near the Yobe River in northeastern Nigeria. It is known as the Dufuna canoe and dates from around 6500 BC. and is considered Africa's oldest boat. Archaeological sites across West Africa mark milestones in the region's prehistory. At a place called Iwo Eleru in the forested area of southwestern Nigeria, scientists have uncovered a rock shelter that was inhabited as early as 10,000 years ago. The shelter contained many small stone blades that may have been used as arrowheads or, attached to handles, as cutting tools. Pottery found in the Sahara is from the same period. Cattle skeletons unearthed at a site called Adrar Bous in Niger show that humans herded domestic cattle, sheep and goats around 4,000 years ago. Other archaeological finds in Mali and Mauritania suggest that agriculture - specifically the cultivation of millet, a cereal grain - began in the region 4,000 to 3,000 years ago. From about 2000 BC Agricultural production increased and sedentary communities developed in the forest and savannah regions of southern West Africa. More than two dozen sites in Ghana and Ivory Coast have uncovered houses in large settlements, complete with a variety of stone tools, remains of sheep and goats, and pottery vessels and figurines. Around the same time, people in the area began working with metal. They may have learned techniques from cultures in Sudan and North Africa or developed them themselves. Finds in Niger show that as early as 2000 B.C. BC copper was processed. The earliest evidence of iron working, also in Niger, dates from around 1000 BC. BC, although iron tools did not completely replace stone tools. A few centuries later, Nigeria, Mali, Ghana, Chad and Senegal also produced iron. Historians used to think that West Africa developed large urban centers and complex social structures as a result of contact with Arabs from North Africa after the 6th century AD. However, accumulating archaeological evidence shows large, complex societies in West Africa long before this period. Some of the earliest evidence comes from the borderlands of the Sahara, where archaeologists have excavated the town of Jenne-jeno in Mali. The city was founded in 250 BC. Founded around 500 years later, it entered a phase of rapid growth. Large mounds of earth have been found elsewhere in West Africa. These contain burial chambers, human sacrifices, and various objects buried with the dead. Some archaeologists believe that such sites,

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Archeology and prehistory together with evidence of expanding trade in the region point to the development of larger states and kingdoms. The trend towards the centralization of power would eventually produce a series of large empires in West Africa.

See Color Plate 5, Vol. 2.

The historical period. Oral histories and some written records, including reports from Arab travelers, offer archaeologists additional insight into West African states after AD 1000 Senegal. Arabic sources refer to Ghana as a thriving kingdom. A description of a king's burial has shed light on the ritual purpose of burial mounds in the area. At Koumbi Saleh, a site in Mauritania believed to have been the capital of Ghana, researchers have unearthed multi-story stone buildings and cemeteries. As Ghana's influence waned, the Kingdom of Mali grew powerful in the region, reaching its peak in the 1200s and 1300s. Some archaeologists believe that Niani, a site in present-day Guinea, was the capital of Mali. Although the site has extensive ruins, excavations suggest it was uninhabited during Mali's most powerful era. The exact location of the capital, as well as the true extent of ancient Mali, remain undetermined. Arabic and European sources describe the rich and powerful Kingdom of Benin in Nigeria, which peaked between 1200 and 1600. Archaeologists have supplemented these written reports in detail. Her research shows that residents of the capital, Benin City, worked with copper, building massive earthworks around important structures. Archaeological sites along the coast of West Africa include forts and castles built by Europeans trading in the area in the 15th century and later. Recent archaeological work has focused on indigenous towns and states near these European outposts and examined how local Africans responded to contact and trade with Europeans. One of the best studied sites is Elmina on the coast of Ghana, site of the first and largest European trading post in sub-Saharan Africa. By the 19th century, the African city there had grown to 15,000 or 20,000 residents. Excavations have unearthed evidence of widespread trade: European pottery, glass and beads, and fine ceramics from China.

EASTERN AFRICA East Africa includes Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania and Uganda. Organized archaeological research in this region only began around 1960, although some earlier work was done by colonial officials collecting various artifacts. East Africa first rose to fame in the 1960s when members of the LEAKEY FAMILY made dramatic fossil finds. These findings shed new light on the earliest human origins in Africa. Other archaeological work has focused on more recent periods in the region's human history.

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Archeology of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa

ÄTHIOPIAN Mother-Tal

Gadamotta

Afar Rift

CAMEROON

Turkana-See

Uganda English

Sango

REP. Katanda OF THE CONGOBECKENS CONGO (Congo, Brazzaville) DEM. REP. VON CONGO

Koobi Fora Kenya Lake Baringo

Viktoriasee

Olduvai Gorge

(Congo, Kinshasa)

TANSANIA Kalambo Falls

Pray

ANGOLA usw

ZAMBIA

it is day

MOZAMBIQUE

Simbabwe Gwisho Hot Springs NAMIBIA

Great Zimbabwe KALAHARI DESERT

po Fluss r po Lim T R A N S VA A L

Apollo 11 Cave

SWAZILAND Frontier Cave Early Stone Age Mesolithic Site SOUTH AFRICA Late Stone Age Site Howieson's Poort Klasies Iron Age Site Estuary City Caves Cape of Good Hope

A key feature of current archeology in the region is the growing involvement of African scholars, students, universities and museums. Interpretation of the region's history was once largely in the hands of Westerners, but more local archaeologists and other scholars are now studying their own past. In addition, East Africa has turned some archaeological sites into tourist attractions and created local museums to educate schools and communities about their archaeological heritage.

See Color Plate 1, Vol. 2.

Prehistory. Discoveries by the Leakeys and others have turned sites in East Africa, such as the well-known Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, into centers of paleoarchaeological research. Paleoarchaeology is concerned with researching very old traces of human existence and culture. One area of research is the evolution of the first humans millions of years ago. Another is the emergence of the modern human species Homo sapiens. Theories pointing to an African origin of Homo sapiens have drawn attention to Mesolithic sites such as Gadamotta near the lake

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Archeology and Prehistory

Remember: words in capital letters have separate entries, and the index at the end of this volume will lead you to further information on many subjects.

Two in Ethiopia. More than 200,000 years ago, the inhabitants of Gadamotta used obsidian — glassy, volcanic rock that can be sharp — to make tools. Other important sites in Tanzania contain stone tools more than 100,000 years old. Archaeological remains from the Late Stone Age, including small stone tools and rock paintings, are found in many places in East Africa. At Gamble's Cave and Nderit Drift near Lake Nakuru in Kenya, archaeologists have found blades, scrapers and other tools made from obsidian between 13,000 and 9,000 years ago. Bone harpoons, stone scrapers, scrapers, whetstones and pottery have been discovered on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya. Hunter-gatherers ate a wide variety of foods there, including crocodiles, hippos, fish, and plants. Near Lake Victoria, Africa's largest lake, archaeologists have found relics of a hunter-gatherer population they call the Oltome culture. Artifacts include highly decorated pottery with stamped decorations. The most famous site in Oltome is the Gogo Falls, which date back to between 4000 and 1000 BC. Archaeological evidence suggests that domestic animal herding began around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago in East Africa, and many groups in the region still follow a pastoral way of life. The most common domesticated animals were cattle, sheep, and goats, although archaeologists have also unearthed camel bones from Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The earliest evidence of agriculture in the region comes from the Lalibela Cave in the highlands of Ethiopia, which contained traces of beans, barley, and chickpeas. Evidence of domesticated wheat, grapes and lentils has been found at other Ethiopian sites. Although grown in East Africa, all of these food crops are native to the Middle East and would have been introduced to the region. About 2,500 years ago, an economy that combined agriculture and trade developed rapidly in the Ethiopian highlands. Local African communities traded valuable commodities such as gold, skins and ivory across the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula. Several hundred years later, Ethiopia became part of a trade network that also crossed the Indian Ocean. These farming communities of Ethiopia are known from archaeological excavations in AKSUM, which eventually grew into a major state. The first communities in East Africa to use iron arose on the shores of Lake Victoria between 2,500 and 1,700 years ago. Archaeologists have not yet identified the origins of these communities, and evidence remains scarce. By about AD 500, peasants with iron tools seem to have occupied areas in East Africa with forested and wet environments, particularly the coastal hills and plains. Historical era. Early evidence of complex African societies comes from the coast of East Africa, where urban communities based on trade networks in the Indian Ocean developed around AD 800. Some communities built large structures out of wood, coral, and limestone and minted their own coins. There are references to Islam, the religion that originated in Arabia. The inhabitants of these urban centers on Zanzibar and elsewhere along the coast were the ancestors of the SWAHILI coast traders who now live in East African cities like Mombasa.

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7000 BC BC Cattle are bred in the Sahara.

2000 BCE. Agriculture replaces most hunting and gathering societies.

1000 BC BC Evidence of iron processing in Niger.

500 AD The Ethiopians begin trading with Arabs across the Red Sea.

1400 AD Europeans establish trade relations in Africa.

Violent debates have developed around the origins of the Swahili coastal communities. Earlier generations claimed that Asian colonists "brought civilization to Africa". However, Swahili is an African native language. Archaeologists now believe that the Swahili coastal culture originated in Africa, but that colonists from southern Arabia influenced the culture. The pattern of peoples and cultures in East Africa today is largely the result of the events of the last thousand years. These events primarily include migrations from the north, with waves of ranchers settling in the area. The newcomers developed dairy farming, raising cattle for milk and sheep and goats for meat. Large population centers have also developed around the lakes of East Africa in the last thousand years. One such center, Bigo, had earthen walls more than 6.2 miles long with ditches up to 16 feet deep. Some states that later emerged in the region, such as Buganda and Bunyoro, have survived.

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AFRICA Central and southern regions of Africa include Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Archaeological sites in these areas contain evidence of human origins and development, as well as more recent remains of complex civilizations and trade networks. However, research has been mixed, and many areas remain unexplored. Prehistory. Archaeologists first discovered fossils of anthropoid australopithecines in South Africa in the 1920s and 1930s. The importance of these discoveries was not immediately appreciated, but eventually paleontologists realized that australopithecines are the earliest human ancestors. Most likely, they made their living by gathering wild food and capturing carcasses killed by large animals. Some of the Australopithecus fossils found in the region were killed by animals, and the locations where they were found do not necessarily represent the places where they lived or made tools from stone and bone. Some archaeological sites in southern Africa, such as the Border Cave in Swaziland and the Klasies River Mouth on the coast of South Africa, contain skeletons of Homo sapiens along with evidence of "modern" behavior such as the evolution of family groups, food sharing, and the planned use of resources . These sites may be more than 100,000 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that the peoples of Central and South Africa during the Late Stone Age were largely nomadic, moving between mountainous and low-lying lands with the seasons. They trapped and hunted animals, gathered a variety of plant foods, and exploited marine resources such as shellfish. They also carefully buried their dead, sometimes placing various objects in the grave and painting intricate images on the walls of rock shelters—facts that guide archaeologists

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Archeology and Prehistory

Louis and Mary Leakey, shown here at work in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, made important contributions to the scientific understanding of human origins.

to believe that these Stone Age people had a strong sense of the spiritual world. Around 2,000 years ago, the Stone Age way of life in the region began to change. In the drier western areas, domesticated sheep became an important part of the economy. Scholars debate the origins of this pastoralism, wondering whether local hunter-gatherers developed livestock farming themselves or whether pastoral peoples came to the region from the north. However, researchers agree that the early herders were the ancestors of the KHOISAN, the indigenous people of southern Africa. In parts of central and southern Africa with relatively reliable summer rainfall, people have adopted a system of mixed farming, combining crop growing and livestock raising. The excavation of many ancient villages has shown that this way of life was firmly established by 200 AD. The villages were linked through the exchange of goods such as food, pottery, salt and iron. They may also have interacted with hunter-gatherers who still followed the Stone Age way of life because stone tools were found in some villages. Historical era. The archaeological picture of Central and South Africa has been clearer for about a thousand years. Domestic livestock, especially cattle, became very important in much of the region. Farming settlements spread into the highlands, where ruins of stone-built communities indicate the existence of large, thriving populations. Complex states emerged around 1100 AD. Mapungabwe and other hill towns along the Limpopo River in Zimbabwe and Botswana were centers of such states. These societies were divided into different economic and social classes. Their rulers controlled both the local economy and connections to the outside world. These connections formed with traders from Arabia on the Indian Ocean coast, where African goods such as gold, ivory and animal skins were exchanged for foreign items such as glass beads and cotton fabrics. The state of Mapungabwe was followed by Greater Zimbabwe, which prospered into the 15th century. At its peak, Great Zimbabwe probably had a population of more than 10,000 people and encompassed areas from eastern Botswana to near the Indian Ocean. The great stone walls in the center of the city reflected the high status of the ruling class; ordinary people lived in mud and thatch houses around the central stone buildings. More than 50 smaller regional centers built in the same style helped maintain Great Zimbabwe's power. The Arab traders who connected southern Africa to the Indian Ocean limited their settlements to the coast. European colonists, beginning with the Portuguese in the early 1500s, ventured inland. They followed rumors of enormous wealth. Portuguese forts, Dutch trading posts and British colonial buildings and settlements are the focus of archaeological research into the more recent colonial past of South and Central Africa. However, many parts of the region are poorly known archaeologically. Much remains to be done, particularly in the large tropical rainforest that covers much of Central Africa. Future research will

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Architecture undoubtedly challenges and changes current ideas about the past of central and southern Africa and the continent as a whole. (See also Africa, Study of; Animals, Domestic; Art; History of Africa; Hunting and Gathering; Humans, Early; Islam in Africa; Viehweiden; Roman Africa; Sudanic Empires of Western Africa.)

Architecture Architecture * native

resident in a specific place

From small mud huts to soaring steel skyscrapers, African architecture is a mix of native* and foreign, old and new. The diverse architecture of the continent reflects its diverse climates and environments, as well as the many different cultures and traditions of African peoples. External influences also played a major role. European designs and construction can be seen in countries across the continent, and Islam has influenced much of North Africa's architecture. Nevertheless, African traditions remain the most important factor.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE Indigenous architecture in Africa is closely linked to the lives of people in an area. Their social systems, livelihood, and religion influence the types of structures they build and the way they shape their communities. The climate and the natural resources of a region also determine the forms and materials of construction. Both the culture and natural resources of an area influence the way people create and decorate their architecture.

See Color Plate 9, Vol. 4.

role of culture. People across Africa have developed styles of architecture that are central to the cultures of specific ethnic groups. In many rural societies, particularly those based on agriculture, people live in housing complexes consisting of several separate buildings connected or surrounded by a wall or fence. Such connections typically house an extensive network of family members. The individual dwellings made of mud, wood and straw are round in some regions and rectangular in others. Each building on a site has a specific purpose. There are rooms for cooking, sleeping, storage, worship, for pets, and sometimes for burying the dead. The buildings and perimeter walls of a compound surround a central courtyard, which is usually the family's main workspace. Many African towns and cities are designed after the basic pattern of rural buildings. Many cities were originally surrounded by walls of wood, earth, or stone, depending on the natural resources available. Markets and royal palaces surrounded the large central square. In North Africa, cities with narrow, winding streets and tightly packed houses were often protected by a massive outer wall and a defensive fort called a kasbah. In some cultures, belief in a spiritual afterlife focused architectural efforts on creating elaborate monuments and tombs. Among the most famous structures on the African continent are the great TEMPLES and PYRAMIDS of ancient Egypt. Probably built for Egyptian rulers

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Architecture

* Pastoral livestock

someone

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Herden

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

Gods, these tombs were built of solid stone and designed to last. The ancient AKSUM culture of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea once erected monuments on a similar scale, including pillars carved in the shape of multi-story buildings towering over 100 feet. These still stand today. In contrast to these monumental buildings is the temporary dwelling of hunter-gatherer societies and some shepherds*. Their architecture often consists only of tents and other shelters that can be set up and taken down quickly. Constructed from various lightweight materials such as wood, grasses and skins, these portable structures adapt to the nomadic lifestyle of their occupants. environment and building materials. The environments in Africa range from harsh deserts to tropical rainforests and temperate savannas*. The architecture of each region is directly related to its surroundings and the building materials available. In tropical regions with heavy rainfall, people usually build houses with pitched roofs that allow water to drain easily. Numerous openings in exterior and interior walls allow outside air to flow through and cool a building. Because vegetation in such regions is often dense, common building materials are wood and plant matter such as leaves and vines. In contrast, in hot, dry regions where wood is scarce, dried mud or bricks are often used for construction. Thick walls with few openings keep out the daytime heat, keeping the interiors relatively cool. In areas with strong, regular winds from a given direction, structures are placed to take advantage of the cooling effects of breezes, and some walls can be reinforced to withstand storms. The building materials used in traditional architecture depend heavily on the resources of a region. In North Africa and along the East African coast, many ancient cities and monuments were made of stone. The Egyptians built temples and pyramids from local limestone. Coastal Swahili was built from blocks of coral. Even today, some sedentary rural populations in East Africa use stone for houses, granaries, and wall foundations because stone lasts much longer than wood in tropical climates. In the rainforest regions of Africa, people harvest hardwood for walls, ceilings, roofs and doors. Some tropical hardwoods are brought to savannah areas where trees and shrubs are scarce. Other common rainforest building materials include bamboo and the flexible roots of trees. Palm fronds, grasses, and vines are woven into mats that are used for walls, roofs, and decoration. Earth is used to build buildings in many parts of Africa. Some people use mud to form cone-shaped or rectangular bricks that are dried or baked until hard. Others build with balls of wet mud. Clay pots and pottery can be used as pavers, gutters, and wall coverings. African builders often work with combinations of stone, earth, wood, textiles and other materials. They cover earthen roofs with wooden boards, dry straw or plant leaves. They reinforce earth walls and arches with tree roots and bamboo sticks, and make tents out of twigs, leather, and fabric.

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Architecture Symbolism in Architecture For the Dogon of Mali, every architectural element - from the individual parts of a house to the entire floor plan of a village - has a symbolic meaning linked to their religious beliefs. Each Dogon community compound, made up of different buildings, symbolizes a man lying on his side. The hearth or chimney is connected to the man's head. The storerooms represent his arms, the stables his legs, and the central workrooms his abdomen. The compound as a whole symbolizes a man in the act of procreating or producing offspring. * Craftsman * Mosque * Rite

Artisan Muslim place of worship

Ceremony or formal procedure

* Bas-relief sculptures, in which the figures are slightly raised off a flat surface

See Color Plate 13, Vol. 3.

The building process. Building in rural Africa has traditionally been a family or even community effort. Many people lend their skills to construct a building. Blacksmiths, woodworkers, weavers and potters may be involved in the building process. Specific tasks are often assigned by gender. Usually, men cut and carve wood, shape and shape bricks, and build the earthen walls of houses. Women can make architectural pottery such as tiles, gutters, and decorative elements, carry water to the construction site, and apply the plaster or clay finishing coats to walls, floors, and other surfaces. In the Islamic cities of Africa, however, construction was generally left to specialized groups of builders and craftsmen*. These highly respected workers held a high status in society. Many people have also feared them and believed that they have magical powers. Often Islamic political and military leaders designed the cities. They planned city walls, mosques* and palaces according to religious principles and decorations from the Koran, the holy book of Islam. The construction process in Africa often involves religious rites*. Many races perform sacrifices and other ceremonies before, during, and after the completion of a construction project. Such rites are believed to help keep the structure strong and stable, and the lives of its occupants peaceful and prosperous. Some nomadic groups build a house as part of their wedding ceremony. decoration in architecture. For some African groups, decoration is an important part of constructing a building. The bricks or stones in a wall can be laid out to form a specific design. The Rozwi of southern Africa, for example, built intricately patterned stone walls in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some groups arrange thatch or other grasses in attractive patterns on roofs; others twist branches and plant materials into decorative elements. Designs and colors can be woven into roof and wall mats such as those made by the Kuba people of the Congo. Decorative elements can also be added after buildings are constructed. The most commonly applied surface decoration, used primarily on stone or earth walls, is dried clay. The mud may be colored with vegetable dyes, carved in bas-reliefs*, or embedded with pieces of pottery, shells, or other materials. Architectural ornaments are most commonly found on doorways and entrances, around window openings, on exterior walls and courtyards, and on rooftops. It can also be used to mark a significant location such as a hearth or storage room or an important building in the community. Surface design patterns vary according to ethnicity, religion and building function. The ancient Egyptians added paintings and carvings to their architecture to tell stories and convey religious messages. In Islamic communities, buildings are usually decorated with geometric and script-like designs because the Muslim religion forbids taking pictures of people and animals. In many cultures, certain colors or patterns can have special symbolic meanings. The Hausa people of northern Nigeria decorate the outside of their homes with bas-reliefs or painted designs, sometimes with images of bicycles and cars, to represent high social status. The NDEBELE of South Africa decorate houses,

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Build churches and other buildings with bold and colorful geometric designs.

EARLY FOREIGN INFLUENCE Travelers from Europe and Asia have long influenced African architecture. The ancient Mediterranean civilizations of Phoenicia, Greece and Rome built great cities in North Africa. Later, Arabs introduced Islamic architecture to the people of the north coast of Africa. Christianity played a lesser role in the continent's early architecture, although it inspired some unique early churches in northeastern Africa.

This gated village in Ghana combines accommodation for family groups with a courtyard for activities like mat weaving.

Greek and Roman influence. Mediterranean settlers and invaders - notably the ancient Greeks and Romans - brought their own architectural styles to Africa. Around 800 BC C., the Phoenicians, a seafaring people from the eastern Mediterranean, built the thriving city of CARTHAGE in present-day Tunisia. The Romans destroyed the original buildings around 150 BC. They later rebuilt the city and made it the capital of their African province. The new city featured an amphitheater, a forum, and miles of aqueducts that carried water to luxurious baths like those in Rome. After Carthage declined, later generations of Tunisian builders reused its stones in the surrounding cities.

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Architecture

This fortress in central Morocco was built on a hilltop overlooking the valley below. It includes square towers and a decorative roofline, features common to many other North African buildings.

The Greeks established another of the great cities of North Africa, ALEXANDRIA, in ancient Egypt. Founded 332 BC by Alexander the Great, the city included Greek-style palaces, parks and temples. Among the most famous buildings were a huge library and a museum that served as an institute for higher education. A towering lighthouse with a fire atop it guided ships into Alexandria Harbor and was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. Islamic and Christian influence. During the 19th century, Arabs spread Islamic culture and architecture along the coasts of North and East Africa. Mosques are among the most distinctive forms of Islamic architecture in Africa. They are often decorated with intricately carved stucco and wood, as well as detailed tile and glass mosaics. Built around a courtyard and prayer hall, many mosques feature horseshoe-shaped archways, multiple domes, vaulted ceilings, and up to six minarets—tall, thin spiers from which Muslims are called to prayer. North African mosques are particularly ornate. Although mosques in Africa are distinctly Islamic in function and decoration, they contain elements of indigenous architecture. In Cairo, mosque builders used an ancient Egyptian technique to carve finely detailed decorations directly into the stone surface. In East Africa, Swahili palaces and mosques are built from blocks of coral. Several early West African mosques, including one at TIMBUKTU in Mali, are built in the local style of mud reinforced with numerous wooden poles protruding from the outer walls. The ends of the

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Architectural poles provide scaffolding for workers to scale and repair the mud walls when they have been damaged by torrential downpours during the rainy season. Although Christianity spread to Africa in the first centuries AD, it had little impact on African architecture until the late 19th century, when European-style churches were introduced. The churches erected in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea are an exception. In the 1200s, indigenous Christians of this area carved massive churches out of solid rock. The style of these churches owed something to the carved monuments of the earlier Aksum culture. Another uniquely African style of Christian architecture developed in the Gondar and Lake Tana regions of Ethiopia in the late 15th century. Churches built in this area were round and surrounded by long avenues covered with arches and walls topped by towers.

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE Some ancient mosques in West Africa, like this one in Djenné, Mali, were built of hardened adobe.

When Europeans began colonizing Africa in the 16th century, a new style of African architecture was born - colonial architecture. From government and commercial buildings to the homes of wealthy Africans, colonial architecture reflected the political and economic ties between them

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Architecture Europeans and Africans. It was primarily an expression of European power and authority.

See Color Plate 11, Vol. 3.

European influence. Although many European nations played a role in colonizing Africa, no clear distinction can be seen in the architecture of their colonies. Rather, these colonial powers produced a common style with variations reflecting local African building traditions, climate and natural resources, and political developments. Some of the earliest colonial architecture appeared in West Africa. From 1500 to 1800, "Portuguese style" houses were built along the West African coast. These rectangular buildings had a whitewashed facade and a porch—a long, covered porch. In Saint-Louis (in modern-day Senegal), the first colonial capital of French West Africa, merchants built houses with courtyards and second-story porches. In the mid-19th century, European missionaries in West Africa built two-story buildings with a porch and a covered passageway. At the end of the 19th century, Brazil, a former colony of Portugal, put its own twist on colonial architecture in West Africa. Wealthy middle-class citizens of African and Brazilian descent built lavish dwellings, with the ground floor reserved for shops and the upper floors reserved for living quarters. They featured highly decorated facades - building fronts - that proclaimed the wealth of their owners. Dutch and British influenced the colonial architecture of South and East Africa. Dutch colonial houses combined thatched or thatched roofs and white plastered walls with ornate gables. When the British took over the region in the early 19th century, they replaced these simple houses with a grander style of architecture with fancy facades. British Colonial style buildings were one or two stories and had wraparound porches. Some were made of prefabricated materials, and most had roofs covered with sheet metal. similarities. By the end of the 19th century a formal colonial style had developed in Africa. This style was also found in India, Southeast Asia, the West Indies, and other European colonial areas. The typical residential structure was a two-story building on pillars. Doors and windows were aligned to take full advantage of air currents, and a porch surrounded the building on both levels. The porch existed in West Africa before the arrival of Europeans, who readily adopted it for their own use because it created a shaded living area open to cool breezes. Government and administrative buildings in the capitals of African colonies played an important role in colonial architecture. Built to reflect colonial power and prestige, these buildings were large and imposing. This included various durable materials such as stone and hardwood that were meant to last.

MODERNIZATION Since colonial times, foreign design and engineering have influenced architecture in Africa. colonial policy, urban growth,

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Architectural migration and Western technology encouraged the introduction of new building materials, construction systems, and building functions. In many rural areas, however, the basic forms of traditional architecture have remained relatively unchanged. Instead of using grasses and palm leaves for roofs, African builders today often replace these natural materials with sheets of iron or aluminum. Instead of sun-dried bricks, they can use concrete blocks. The influence of foreign cultures and new materials is particularly evident in cities. Many African nations have adopted the universal urban architecture of concrete and steel, submerging much of the unique character of African architecture. However, some nations, such as Morocco, have taken steps to encourage the use of local designs and decorations in new buildings. The character of indigenous architecture also continues to change rapidly as professionally trained architects are increasingly involved in the development of new forms of architecture. (See also Arts, Cities and Urbanization, Crafts, Colonialism in Africa, Roman Africa.)

armies

Art

See warfare.

Each of the hundreds of different cultures in Africa has its own artistic traditions and its own ideas about what is beautiful or important. Variations in the style and form of artworks, as well as in the materials used in their manufacture, reflect factors such as a region's geography and climate, its social customs, and the technology available. Of course, the skill and taste of the individual artists – and the purpose for which the work was created – also play a role in shaping the final product.

OVERVIEW OF AFRICAN ART *abstract in art, refers to designs or forms that do not depict a recognizable object or person

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern * Islamic in reference to Islam, the religion based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad; religious belief of Muslims

African art takes many forms, from sculptures and paintings to masks, textiles, baskets, jewelry and utensils. The artistic style also covers a wide spectrum, from lifelike depictions of people or animals to abstract* geometric patterns. For example, the YORUBA of Nigeria and the Bamileke of Cameroon believe that sculptures must resemble their subjects and also exhibit certain ideal qualities such as youth and beauty. The BAMBARA from Mali prefer geometric shapes and idealized images to realistic depictions of people or animals. In sub-Saharan Africa*, many art objects are created to serve a specific purpose. These purposes include grappling with life's problems, marking the transition from childhood to adulthood, communicating with spirits, and expressing core beliefs. Artists carve figures in honor of ancestors, rulers and gods. They make masks for use in rituals* and funerals and for entertainment. They design jewelry and body paint, which often act as symbols of wealth, power, and social standing. In North Africa, Islamic* beliefs restrict the creation of images of living beings. As a result, artists have applied their skills to decorative arts such as carpet weaving and calligraphy or decorative writing.

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Art Twins in Life and Art Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, small carved figures play an important role in family life. When a child in a pair of twins dies in infancy, the mother asks an artist to make a figurine representing the deceased child. Carved from wood, the figure has hair that is often dyed a rich blue-black. The mother cares for the character as if she were a real child, providing him with food, expensive clothing, and jewelry until the surviving twin is old enough to care for him.

* Divination practice that looks into the future, usually by supernatural means

Calligraphy can be seen on buildings, household items, sacred books and other places. importance in African art. The subject matter of a work of art and the manner in which it was made often influence its meaning. In some cases, objects of great social and ritual importance must be assembled according to specific procedures. Following the rules ensures that the piece is filled with the appropriate “power”. When the rules are broken, the artwork loses its power and becomes an ordinary object. In other cases, the power is given to the object after it is completed. Some objects serve as a base for materials that increase their meaning. For example, when a carver makes a mask, the village elders can contribute medicines or herbs to give the mask power. The resulting piece has a personality of its own. Design and decoration play a big part in the meaning of an object. An artist can make a mask large to indicate it is important and add a prominent forehead to indicate that the mask is swollen with spiritual power. Certain patterns have special meaning and may represent water, the moon, the earth, or other ideas. Objects depicting spirits or spiritual forces are often abstract because the things they depict are abstract. Figures depicting living rulers are usually more realistic in order to be able to recognize the characteristics of the individual. Some objects contain symbols representing powerful beasts. In a style of African art, forms that have known meanings are used to create images of figures and ideas. The purpose is to portray rulers or ancestors as superhuman while conveying a sense of permanence. Another category of art includes sculptures and masks that represent the visible world but also refer to an invisible world beyond. These objects can be used in activities such as healing ceremonies and divination*. A third type of African art consists of everyday objects such as spoons, pots, doors, cloths and so on. Some of these items are ornately decorated, such as B. the intricate human faces carved into the handles of wooden trowels from Ivory Coast. These objects, often reserved for the wealthy, can also be markers of social position. Collecting African Art. Europeans began collecting African artworks as early as the 17th century, and interest in these objects was high by the 18th century. However, the first African pieces brought to Europe were considered curiosities rather than works of art. Some people admired the workmanship but viewed African art as "primitive" and devoid of artistic value. Nonetheless, by the late 19th century many European museums had acquired African pieces for their collections, usually to show everyday life in their countries' colonies. African works did not attract much attention as art until the 1920s, when interest focused primarily on sculptures in wood and bronze. Since the 1950s, Western collectors, scholars and museums have increasingly recognized African objects as valuable works of art. The prices of these works have risen accordingly. In the early years, European museums often displayed African objects with animal exhibits rather than other works of art. Today,

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Art Power Figures Carved figures or other objects believed to have magical powers (sometimes referred to as fetishes) are found in societies in many parts of Africa, including the Congo and the Fang. The figures can take various forms, from representations of ancestors or other people to images of real or imaginary animals. No matter what they represent, most figurines contain special ritual substances to give them their "power". These substances—often blood, plant matter, minerals, or animal parts—are placed in a cavity inside the character or attached somewhere on their body.

* Motif in art and music, repeated theme or design

Museums present African pieces in their art collections. Additionally, collectors now understand that although individual works are unsigned, many African artists are known by name and reputation on the continent. Art collecting has also changed in Africa. In the past, Africans sometimes threw objects away when they thought they had lost their strength. Without a specific function, the objects were of little value. More recently, however, more Africans have started collecting artworks and a number of museums with collections of African art have been established on the continent. Recent African Art. Over the centuries, African art has changed with the times. Not surprisingly, modern African society and culture is reflected in the recent work of African artists. Some of the religious rituals and other traditional activities for which African art was created no longer exist. In addition, new traditions were introduced, such as those associated with the practice of Christianity. Some artists have combined African ideas and Christian themes in their work. Others have made pieces with African motifs* and designs not intended for ritual use. Although much of contemporary art reflects modern concerns and issues, traditional art forms continue to play a significant role in the lives of ordinary people. Art styles are also changing. Traditional designs often appear in new ways, such as using body paint designs in paintings on canvas. Perhaps one of the most striking features of recent African art is its role in the modern market. In many places, an art industry has developed that produces objects specifically for Western tourists and collectors. Such "tourist" art can include copies of older art forms as well as contemporary designs.

SCULPTURE See Color Plate 8, Vol. 3.

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

For sculpture, perhaps the largest art form in sub-Saharan Africa, the most common materials used are wood and clay, as well as metals such as iron, bronze, and gold. Unfortunately, wood decomposes and is easily destroyed, so only a few pieces of early wooden sculpture have survived. West Africa. Sculpture is one of the most important art forms in West Africa. Scholars divide the region's artistic traditions into two broad geographic areas: western Sudan and coastal Guinea. Although some common themes emerge in the art of these areas, the most striking feature of West African sculpture is its diversity. West Sudan, a savanna region* that stretches across West Africa, includes several clearly defined sculpting traditions. Figures from this region often have elongated bodies, angular shapes, and facial features that represent an ideal rather than an individual. Many of the figurines are used in religious rituals and often have dull surfaces encrusted with materials placed on them in ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of western Sudan make wooden figurines with broad, flat surfaces. The body, arms, and legs are shaped like cylinders, while the nose can be a large vertical plate. Artists often burn

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Art Made by the Ndebele people of South Africa, these beaded dolls contain objects worn by married Ndebele women that were originally fertility charms.

See Color Plate 6, Vol. 3.

Patterns of scars - a common type of body decoration - into the surface of figures with a hot blade. Scar patterns also consist of large geometric shapes. The Mande wooden figures are mostly dark brown and black. Another important sculptural tradition of this region is that of the Dogon in Mali. Many Dogon sculptures are associated with ancestor worship. The Dogon carve figures meant to harbor the spirits of the dead, which they place on family shrines. Her designs feature raised geometric patterns, such as black and white checkerboards and groups of circles in red, white and black. The coast of Guinea stretches along the Atlantic Ocean from Guinea-Bissau through central Nigeria and Cameroon. Sculptural figures from this region tend to be more realistic than those from other parts of West Africa. The figures' arms, legs and bodies are curved and smooth. Detailed patterns depicting body scars - also typical of this region - rise above the surrounding surface. Many figures are adorned with rings around their necks. Rings are a common form of body jewelry and symbols of wealth and well-being. Two notable coastal Guinea sculptural traditions are those of the ASANTE (Ashanti) and the Fon. The Asante carve dolls that represent their idea of female beauty. They also make gold foil covered swords and staves for royal officials. The Fon are known for their large copper and iron sculptures of Gun, the god of iron and war. The artistic traditions of Nigeria are indeed very old. Among the earliest sculptures from northern Nigeria are realistic clay figures of animals made by the Nok culture as early as 400 BC. The human figures produced by the Nok, with their tubular heads, bodies, arms and legs, are less realistic. The ancient Kingdom of Benin in Nigeria was famous for its magnificent brass sculptures. These date from around 1400 AD and include images of groups of animals, birds and people. Another important sculptural tradition is that of Ife, an ancient Yoruba city in southwestern Nigeria. Between 1100 and 1450 AD the people of Ife created realistic figurines in brass and clay, some of which probably represent kings. Life-size Yoruba brass heads from this period may have played a role in burial ceremonies. Yoruba carvings typically depict human figures in a naturalistic style. The sculptural

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Art Art schools In many African cities - including Cairo, Johannesburg and Addis Ababa in Ethiopia - artists can now study at formal art schools. These schools, often affiliated with universities, bring artists together to share ideas and learn artistic skills. Painter Uche Okeke helped develop the art program at the University of Nigeria at Nsukka in the 1970s. The school became a center for artists incorporating traditional Igbo forms, known as uli, into their work. Using mediums such as ink, watercolor and oil paint, the Nsukka artists create images that deal with political and economic conditions, explore human relationships and depict the beauty of the Nigerian landscape.

* Cult group held together by devotion to a specific person, belief, or god * Relics, pieces of bone, possessions, or other items belonging to a saint or holy person

ditions of Ife are still followed, but individual cults* often have their own distinct styles. Central Africa. Central Africa, a vast expanse of forest and savanna stretching south from Cameroon to Angola and west to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, is home to a wide variety of cultures and arts. But the differences in the artistic styles are usually so striking that connoisseurs can easily identify the place of origin of an object. A number of groups in Central Africa have ancient sculpting traditions, and some of the most impressive carvings in Africa come from this region. Pieces range from the wooden heads of the Fang to the royal figures carved by the Kuba to guard chests of ancestral relics*. The Kuba figures are decorated with geometric designs and objects symbolizing the achievements of each king. The Kuta-Mahongwe work in a more abstract style to make guardian figures covered with sheets of brass or copper. The diverse sculpture of Central Africa has some distinctive features, such as heart-shaped faces curving inward and patterns of circles and dots. Some groups prefer rounded, curved shapes, while others prefer geometric, angular shapes. Certain details are often emphasized. Particularly striking are the richly carved hairstyles and headgear, intricate scar patterns and tattoos, and necklaces and bracelets. Although wood is the main material for carving, the people of this region also make figurines out of ivory, bone, stone, clay and metal. East Africa. Although sculpture is not a major art form in East Africa, there are a variety of sculptural traditions in the region. An unusual sculptural form in some parts of East Africa is the pole, carved and decorated in human form. Usually associated with death, pillar sculptures are placed next to graves or at village entrances. Among the Konso of Ethiopia, for example, the grave of a wealthy, important man may be marked by a group of carved wooden figures representing the deceased, his wives, and the people or animals he killed while he was alive. Also in parts of Madagascar, sculpture is mainly associated with the dead. Figures are often placed on tombs or in shrines dedicated to ancestors. The graves of prominent Mahafaly people can be covered with up to 30 wooden sculptures. Each sculpture is carved from a single piece of wood and is approximately 61/2 feet tall. The lower parts are often decorated with geometric shapes, while the upper parts are carved with figures of animals, people and various objects. South Africa. Sculpture does not have a particularly strong tradition in southern Africa. The oldest known clay figurines from South Africa, dated between AD 400 and 600, have cylindrical heads, some with human features and others with a combination of human and animal features. Among the more notable carved objects found in southern Africa are wooden headrests in a variety of styles, from geometric patterns to more realistic carvings of animal figures. Some headrests were buried with their owners, others were passed down from one generation to the next.

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Art

MASKS

See Color Plate 2, Vol. 1.

Masks are one of the most important and widespread art forms in sub-Saharan Africa. They can be used at initiation ceremonies such as B. the transition from childhood to adulthood. Masks also serve as symbols of power to enforce the laws of society. Masks are usually worn as disguises in ceremonies and rituals, along with a costume made of leaves, cloth, feathers, and other materials. Although masks can represent either male or female spirits, they are almost always worn by men. The person wearing the mask in the ceremony is no longer treated as themselves, but as the spirit that the mask represents. In addition to face masks (which only cover the face), there are helmet masks (which cover all or most of the head) and crest masks (which are worn on the head like a headdress). Masks made of wood, clay, metal, leather, cloth, or other materials can be painted and decorated with things like animal skins, feathers, beads, and shells. West Africa. Many different shapes and styles of masks can be found in West Africa. The Bambara of Mali have specific masks for their different male societies. Many of these masks depict animals that represent mythical characters. The masks are decorated with real antelope horns, porcupine quills, bird skulls and other objects. The characteristics of several animals are combined in the masks of the Senufo people of Ivory Coast. Masks play a role in rituals and ceremonies related to death or ancestors. Once a year, the Yoruba of Nigeria put on masks made of colorful fabrics and small carved wooden heads in elaborate performances in honor of their ancestors. In other parts of Nigeria, masks depicting both human and animal characters are worn at the funerals of important elders to honor the deceased. The IGBO people in Nigeria have two types of masks to mark the transition from childhood to adulthood. Dark masks represent "male attributes" such as power and strength, wealth and impurity, while delicate white masks symbolize "female attributes" of beauty, gentleness and purity. Among the Mende people of Sierra Leone, elaborate black helmet masks depicting the Mende ideals of female beauty are used in rituals to initiate young girls into femininity. This is the only case of women wearing masks in Africa. Central and East Africa. Many Central African masks signify rank and social position, and represent the authority and privilege of kings, chiefs, and others. Some also act as identity symbols for specific groups. While certain masks are considered the property of individuals, others are owned collectively by the group. Used in a variety of situations, masks can instill fear, combat witchcraft, or entertain. As everywhere in Africa, many masks are associated with initiation and burial rituals. Among the most notable masks of Central Africa are large helmet masks with figures of people, animals and scenes on them. Too heavy to carry or wear, they are displayed at important ceremonies. The

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Art The wooden mask shown here was carved by the Yaure people of Ivory Coast. The Yaure often use fine line patterns to indicate beards, hairlines, jewelry, and scars.

* Amulet Small object believed to have supernatural or magical powers

Pende masks from Angola and Congo (Kinshasa) are among the most dramatic works of art in Africa. These large helmet masks have faces with angular patterns and heavy triangular eyelids. Crowned with plant fibers representing hair, they are said to have mysterious powers. The Pende make smaller versions of these masks from ivory or wood for use as amulets*. In nearby Zambia, various materials are used to make ceremonial masks. The Mbundu work with wood, and the Luvale and Chokwe attach pieces of painted barkcloth to a wicker frame. Masks do not play a major role in the art of East Africa. However, the Makonde people of Mozambique and southeastern Tanzania make distinctive face masks and body masks.

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Art

GRIND

See Color Plate 2, Vol. 2.

See Color Plate 3, Vol. 3.

See Color Plate 15, Vol. 3.

See Color Plate 8, Vol. 4.

Painting on canvas is a recent development in Africa. Although Africans have always painted, they mainly did so on rock surfaces or on the walls of houses and other buildings. Africans also apply paint to sculpted figures, masks, and their own bodies. The earliest known African paintings are on rocks in southern Africa. These rock paintings, made by the KHOISAN people about 20,000 years ago, depict human and animal figures, often in hunting scenes. The paintings may have had ritual or social significance, although no one knows for sure. Other ancient rock paintings have been found in the Sahara desert of North Africa. These paintings date back as far as the 4000s BC. and also show animals and human figures. The strongest rock painting traditions are found in eastern and southern Africa. East Africa. The people of East Africa have traditionally painted and marked their bodies in a variety of ways. Such decoration was seen as a sign of beauty, as well as a form of artistic expression. Some of this is temporary, as in the case of body painting using various natural pigments and other dyes. The patterns and designs used often signify group identity, social status, and passing through important stages in life. Other forms of painting can be found in Ethiopia. Christian influence has been strong in Ethiopia for centuries, and around 1100 AD Ethiopian artists began painting religious scenes on the walls of churches. Since the 17th century, Ethiopians have also produced religious images on canvas, wood panels and parchment. Traditions of painting can also be found in several other areas of East Africa. The Dinka and Nuer of South Sudan, for example, paint pictures of cattle and people on the walls of huts. Members of the Sukuma secret society of snake charmers in Tanzania decorate the interior walls of their communal houses with images of humans, snakes and mythological figures. The LUO of western Kenya paint geometric designs on fishing boats and the Mahafaly of Madagascar paint scenes on the sides of tombs. South Africa. Mural painting, on the interior or exterior of buildings, is an important art form in southern Africa. Some very striking examples can be found in this region. Among the best known are those of the NDEBELE from South Africa and Zimbabwe. These paintings, created almost exclusively by women, were traditionally done in natural earth tones with bold geometric shapes and symmetrical designs. In recent years, Ndebele women have also used commercial paint, and their designs have become more diverse, including lettering and objects such as lightbulbs, as well as abstract designs.

DECORATIVE ARTS The decorative arts include items such as textiles, jewellery, pottery and basketry. While these objects are considered handicrafts in some western cultures

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Art

North African artists use calligraphy to decorate buildings and a variety of household items.

See Color Plate 12, Vol. 3.

See Color Plate 9, Vol. 3.

* Raffia palm used for weaving and basket weaving

can also be considered works of art due to the care and craftsmanship that goes into their manufacture. Many useful objects are carved from wood or other hard materials and then decorated. The SWAHILI of East Africa used ivory and ebony (a hard wood) to construct elaborate "chairs of power" with footrests and removable backrests. In West Africa, some Nigerian artisans make musical instruments and food containers from round fruits known as gourds. The outer surfaces of the gourds are covered with delicately carved and painted geometric designs. African artists create jewelry for adornment, as a symbol of social status, and even to bring health and good luck. They use materials like gold, silver, and different types of pearls to make necklaces, bracelets, crowns, rings, and anklets. In the KALAHARI DESERT of southern Africa, artisans made ornaments with beads made of glass or ostrich egg shells. In West Africa, the Asante are famous for their gold jewelry and gold-hilted swords. The Asante are also skilled weavers, known for their kente fabrics – richly colored cotton or silk fabrics. Many groups of people in West and Central Africa have developed their own weaving traditions using specific types of looms and decorative techniques such as embroidery, patchwork, painting, stenciling or batik. Weavers use cotton, wool, wild silk, raffia* or synthetic threads to create their designs. In Niger, the Zerma weave large cotton blankets in vivid red and black designs. The Mandjak in Senegal produce colorful fabrics from artificial silk, artificial silk or lurex fibers. One of the most important decorative art forms in North Africa is calligraphy. Calligraphy holds a special meaning for Muslims because they consider the written word a sacred symbol of the Islamic faith. In ADDI

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Asante See Color Plate 13, Vol. 3.

asante asante

See Color Plate 9, Vol. 1.

Due to limitations in creating human images, artists are turning to calligraphy to decorate their works. Calligraphy can be found on buildings throughout North Africa and on many objects of everyday life. Carved in wood and stone, painted on walls and ceramics, baked into leather, woven into fabric, or formed into jewelry, calligraphy appears in a variety of materials and styles. Geometric designs, or fluid patterns of lines and curves that resemble flowers, leaves, vines, and even animals, often accompany calligraphy. These designs are always highly stylized, not realistic in shape. Carpets are another important art form in North Africa. The production of intricate hand-knotted carpets began to flourish in Egypt under the Mamluk Muslim rulers in the 14th century. Early carpets with a central design surrounded by border elements sometimes contained up to six colors. Woven carpets are often made by BERBER groups in many areas of North Africa, including Sudan and Morocco. (See also Architecture, Body Adornment and Clothing, Crafts, Ethnic Groups and Identity, Festivals and Carnivals, Homes and Dwellings, Initiation Rites, Masks and Masquerades, Religion and Ritual, Rock Art, Possession of Spirits, Witchcraft and Sorcery.)

The Asante (Ashanti) are the largest and most powerful of a group of AKAN chiefs in southern GHANA and the IVORY COAST. The Asante originated around Lake Bosumtwi and migrated to the area around the town of Tafo in the early 16th century. Around 1700, Chief Osei Tutu made alliances with several surrounding kingdoms to form the Asante Union. The union included the Mampong, Bekwai, Kokofu, Dwaben and Nsuta. It is a legend that Osei Tutu, with the support of Okomfu Anokye, established the Golden Chair as the traditional symbol of Asante unity to be held by the Asante ruler. The stool is kept in the capital Kumasi. By the early 1800s, the Asante had spread towards the Atlantic coast, threatening British control of trade there. It came into conflict with British troops who burned Kumasi in 1874 and exiled several important Asante. In 1902, the British made the Asante state part of their colonial empire. Although they allowed the Asante Union to be re-established in 1935, it became part of the Gold Coast, as Ghana was then called. There are about three million Asante, most of whom make their living from agriculture. Their main products are gold, cocoa, palm oil, timber, bauxite and rubber. Many Asante are highly educated and hold important positions in Ghana's government, business and religious institutions. The Asante practice various religions including Christianity, Islam and traditional religions; Most combine different forms of faith and worship. Of the approximately 150,000 Muslim Asante, the majority of the Sunni school follow the Maliki tradition, while a minority believe in the Shafi'i rite. Family inheritance is determined by matrilineal descent. (See also Christianity in Africa, Islam in Africa.)

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Asantewa, Jaa

Asantewa, Asantewa, Yaa Yaa ca. 1832–1921 Asante Queen * Siege attempt to capture a fortress or city by surrounding it with troops and cutting off supplies

ASHANTI

Askiya Muhammad I (?)–1528 Ruler of the Songhai Empire * Pilgrimage to a shrine or holy place

aa Asantewa was queen of the ASANTE city of Edweso in today's GHANA. In 1900 she led a three-month siege* against British troops in the Asante capital of Kumasi. The British had taken Kumasi four years earlier to extend their control over what was then known as the Gold Coast. They forced a group of Asante chiefs and elders, including Asantewa's grandsons, to leave their land. During this conflict, the Asante hid the Golden Chair, the sacred symbol of Asante kingship. When the British governor, Sir Frederick Hodgson, arrived in Kumasi in 1900, he demanded payment from the Asante and the surrender of the Golden Chair. These demands led to an uprising and siege by Asantewa and leaders of the surrounding Asante towns. The British eventually broke the siege and banished Asantewa to the SEYCHELLES, where she died 21 years later. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

See Asante.

skiya Muhammad I was a statesman and military leader who ruled the Songhai Empire in West Africa for more than 30 years. During his reign, Muhammad not only expanded the empire, he reorganized it and transformed it into a Muslim kingdom. He is said to have been a nephew of the Songhai Emperor Sunni Ali Ber. Soon after the death of Sunni Ali, Muhammad attacked and defeated the new emperor, Sunni Baru. He then gave himself the title Askiya. Two years later, Mohammed* made a pilgrimage to Mecca, and when he returned in 1497, he made Islam the official religion of the Songhai Empire. Muhammad conquered a vast area of northwestern Africa, and his empire's influence extended even further. His main achievements, however, were organizational. He divided the empire into provinces administered by governors and appointed separate ministers to direct financial affairs, justice, agriculture, and other areas important to the state. He also raised a permanent army and fleet of war canoes and placed them under the command of a general and an admiral. The well-run empire became a model for the surrounding states. Muhammad's children ended his successful reign. They fought fiercely for the riches of his empire. In 1528, his eldest son killed Muhammad's new supreme commander and banished Muhammad to an island in the NIGER River. When another son took power in 1537, he called his father back to the capital, Gao, where Mohammed died the following year. His tomb, an earthen pyramid with wooden spikes, still stands. It is considered one of the holiest Islamic sites in West Africa. (See also Islam in Africa, Sudanic Empires of West Africa, Sunni Ali.)

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Atlas Mountains

Asma'u, Nana 1793–1864 Islamic poet and teacher * Jihad

Muslim holy war

* Caliphate

State in the Muslim Empire

* Sufi member of a Muslim movement distinguished by mysticism and devotion to poverty and prayer

AXUM

Atlas Atlas Mountains mountains

* native

resident in a specific place

Ana Asma'u, an Islam teacher in what is now northern Nigeria, was known for her writings and her work in educating Muslim women. She was fluent in Arabic and several African languages and memorized the entire Muslim holy book, the Koran. Her father, UTHMAN DAN FODIO, was an Islamic ruler who waged a jihad* in Hausaland in 1804. Nana Asma'u later wrote extensively about this jihad. After the death of her father, Nana Asma'u became part of a team organizing a new Muslim community in the Sokoto Caliphate*. She also helped her brother, Caliph Muhammed Bello, translate and adapt into verse a work on Sufi* women. Through her poetry, Nana Asma'u reminded the new leaders of the caliphate of their responsibility to the people. Some of their writings provide insight into the workings of the Muslim community. Perhaps she is best remembered for creating an educational network for rural Muslim women who taught students their mother tongue. This network still exists today. (See also Literature, Sufism.)

See Aksum.

he Atlas Mountains are the most important geographical feature of the North African countries of MOROCCO, ALGERIA and TUNISIA. They consist of six mountain ranges - the Anti-Atlas, the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, the Sahara Atlas, the Tell Atlas and the Aurés - with plateaus and plains in between. The mountains run about 1,250 miles northeast from the Atlantic coast of Morocco to the Mediterranean coast of Tunisia. The Atlas Mountains have had a profound impact on the climate, economic resources, and human history of North Africa. The mountain ranges separate the coastal lowlands from the inland SAHARA DESERT and prevent the desert heat from reaching the coast. They also catch wet winter storms that blow in from the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean, causing rainfall along the coast and preventing rain from reaching the interior. In addition, snowfall in the mountains feeds rivers and streams that irrigate the northern parts of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. For these reasons, the northern districts are greener and better suited to agriculture than the flat desert areas found elsewhere in North Africa, and over the centuries people have chosen to settle in these more fertile areas. The Atlas Mountains are home to several BERBER tribes, indigenous* North African peoples. Because of their isolation in the Atlas Mountains, the Berbers have been able to preserve their languages and customs. Many of them subsist on agriculture and animal husbandry. The name of the mountains comes from the Greek legend Atlas, who carried the world on his shoulders. The ancient Greeks believed that Atlas lived among the North African peaks. The Arabs who later settled

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Atlas Mountains

The Atlas Mountains act as a barrier between the coastal lowlands of western North Africa and the Sahara. The mountains trap moisture along the fertile coast, protecting the region from the desert heat.

Azikiwe, Benjamin Nnamdi 1904–1996 President of Nigeria

in the region nicknamed Jazirat al-Maghrib, "Island of the West" for its contrast with the surrounding desert. Today Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia are sometimes referred to as MAGHREB or Maghrib.

Enjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe was the first President of the Federal Republic of NIGERIA after the country gained independence from Britain in 1960. As a young man, Azikiwe left Nigeria to study in the United States. He earned a master's degree in political science and anthropology. After his studies he worked for three years as an editor of the newspaper African Morning Post in Accra, GHANA. Then Azikiwe returned to Nigeria and founded the newspaper West African Pilot. Azikiwe began his political career in 1944 when he joined forces with Herbert MACAULAY, founder of Nigeria's first political party, the

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Banda, Held Hastings Kamuzu

* drop

to be removed from office

Bambara Bambara

* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

Banda, Ngwazi Hastings Kamuzu 1906 – President of Malawi

Nigerian National Democratic Party. Together they organized the National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon. Azikiwe became chairman of the party (renamed the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens) two years later. Azikiwe served as Prime Minister of Eastern Nigeria under British rule from 1954 to 1959. After Nigeria gained independence, he served as Governor-General from 1960 to 1963, becoming the nation's first President in 1963. Azikiwe, however, was deposed from the military three years later* took control of Nigeria and banned political parties. After the ban was lifted in 1978, Azikiwe returned to political life as a member of the Nigerian People's Party. By the time he retired from politics in 1986, he had gained a wide reputation as a political strategist. He was also known as a Nigerian patriot and human rights advocate. He wrote several books on African politics.

With an estimated population of 3 million, the Bambara are the largest ethnic group in MALI. They also live in large numbers in northern Ivory Coast. They are sometimes called Bamana, the name of the Mande language they speak. Two Bambara kingdoms arose in the region in the 17th century, but fell to Muslim troops in the 18th century. As the French entered the area, they destroyed the remaining Bambara armies. By the early 20th century, some Bambara had converted to Islam, the religion of their longtime Muslim enemies, to resist French rule. The conversion process increased rapidly after World War II, and as of the 1980s, more than 70 percent of the Bambara are Muslim. Many of the urban Bambara hold important positions in politics, business, and professions such as law and medicine. The rural Bambara are mainly farmers, growing staple foods and various cash crops*, including peanuts, rice and cotton. They are known as artists and weavers of fabrics that are exported all over the world. In recent years, many Bambara have moved from rural to urban areas to find work as laborers. (See also Islam in Africa.)

R. Hastings Kamuzu Banda was President of MALAWI from 1966 to 1994. His presidency was a period of one-party rule. Born in the British colony of Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi), Banda left her homeland at the age of 17 to study in SOUTH AFRICA. He later traveled to the United States, where he attended college and medical school. While practicing medicine in LONDON and GHANA, Banda became involved in his country's politics. He joined the Nyasaland Congress and protested Britain's decision to create a federation linking Nyasaland with the neighboring colonies of Northern and Southern Rhodesia. In 1958, Congress asked him to return home. Banda soon formed his own political party, the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). He was a lively and appealing socialite, and when

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Banda, Held Hastings Kamuzu

* Apartheid policies of racial segregation in South Africa aimed at maintaining white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race. * Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

BANKS

Bantu peoples

* Lining

to hunt or forage for food

* archaeological refers to the study of past human cultures and societies, usually through the excavation of ruins

Nyasaland gained independence as Malawi in 1964, and Banda became the country's prime minister. Three years later he was elected President. In 1971 he changed his title to president for life, making the MCP the only legal political party in the country. Banda's political opponents were exiled, imprisoned or killed. Its foreign policy favored western governments. At home, he tried to modernize Malawi's agriculture and public works while forcing a strict moral code on the people. Banda regulated everything from the length of women's skirts to the books people could read. Despite his strict rule, Banda was widely respected in Malawi and referred to by the local media as Ngwazi, meaning savior or conqueror. However, he angered many African leaders by supporting the South African apartheid* government and guerrilla* rebels in MOZAMBIQUE. In 1991, various groups spoke out against Banda's human rights violations and further weakened his power. In 1994, Banda reluctantly allowed the first multiparty elections in nearly 30 years and resigned from the presidency.

See development, economic and social affairs; money and banking.

he Bantu, a large group of related peoples, originated along what is now the border between NIGERIA and CAMEROON and spread to central and southern Africa. The term Bantu is sometimes used to describe all Africans and African culture in general. But this use of the term is imprecise; Bantu peoples make up only about a third of Africa's population. Bantu is also the name of the family of related LANGUAGES spoken by these people. Over time, the many Bantu-speaking peoples have differed greatly from one another. Bantu origins. All Bantu languages evolved from a single language known as Proto-Bantu. About 4000 BC The people who spoke this language developed a culture based on root crop growing, foraging* and fishing along the West African coast. Over the years, Bantu has become more widely spoken than the languages of the nomadic peoples who lived in the same area. Its spread was likely aided by the unique social organization of the early Bantu, based on a system of inter-village cooperation. Each village consisted of several "houses" and each house formed working relationships with houses from other villages. This strong but flexible social network may have helped the Bantu migrate across the continent. Archaeological* evidence suggests that the Bantu migration began sometime after 3000 BC. A group of Bantu moved south, reaching southern Cameroon around 1500 BC. Within a thousand years, the migrants also settled the Congo Coast and Congo Basin in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo (KONGO (KINSHASA)). These West Bantu people developed new skills such as ironworking and the

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Bantu peoples

These Zulu women from South Africa speak one of the continent's nearly 600 Bantu languages.

* Interlacustrine

between lakes

Manufacture of ceramics. They continued to live side by side with other races but apparently shared little culture or technology. The Interlacustrine Bantu. Long after the western Bantu migration, a second Bantu migration began—this one to the east. Sometime before 1000 BC Bantu groups arrived in the northwestern Great Lakes area of present-day UGANDA. Known as the Interlacustrine* Bantu, these peoples learned new agricultural methods from neighbors in East Africa who spoke Cushitic and Sudanese languages. They raised livestock - especially cattle - and practiced agriculture by growing crops such as sorghum. Bantu women eventually married Sudanese and Kushite men and raised their children to speak the Bantu language. Between about 500 B.C. and 800 AD, the Bantu language spread throughout the Great Lakes region. Two specific developments brought steady prosperity to this region after 1000 AD. The first was the advent of plantain cultivation. The second was pastoralism - a way of life in which cattle were driven from place to place in search of new grazing land. Both plantains (a banana-like fruit) and cattle provided a reliable year-round food supply, allowing communities to grow in size and complexity. The Bantu founded new settlements, created a new style of pottery, and developed new social and political connections.

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Bantu peoples

* Mean person called to commune with the spirit world

Bantu communities who practiced pastoralism were particularly influential in the region. Their cattle were a source of movable wealth. People who owned livestock gained political power by lending the livestock to neighbors who in return were obliged to provide support and assistance to the lender. In this way, new political relationships were established through the borrowing of cattle, and outsiders were integrated into existing political and social groups. Bantu pastoral communities also spread their religion as they travelled, bringing new spirits and beliefs to the communities they visited. Their mediums* established new centers of spiritual and political power that competed with, and often supplanted, the worship of local spirits. Between 1000 and 1500, the new forms of economic, political, religious and social life that arose under Bantu influence completely transformed the African Great Lakes region. Later Bantu cultures. The Interlacustrine Bantu eventually spread eastward into present-day KENYA and TANZANIA, and southward into present-day ZIMBABWE, BOTSWANA, MOZAMBIQUE, and parts of SOUTH AFRICA. This movement was very rapid and most likely occurred before 200 BC. As in the West, the Bantu languages are widely spoken throughout East Africa. After the end of the first eastward enlargement, East Bantu speakers in southeast Congo (Kinshasa) and ZAMBIA moved west and joined the West Bantu speakers. The languages in this area show a mixture of East and West Bantu influences. The most extensive archaeological evidence of Bantu culture in eastern and southern Africa dates to AD 400. At this time cattle were so important in southern Bantu society that villages were built around a central corral. In Kenya, around 750, the first cities were built by the SWAHILI – another Bantu people. Swahili settlements soon scattered the Indian Ocean coast to Mozambique. Around the same time, agricultural and livestock systems emerged in Uganda and RWANDA. In these regions there were Bantu settlements with fortified central areas that eventually grew into kingdoms after about 1500. By AD 1000, settlements along the Limpopo River had developed into a city called Mapungabwe - the capital of a Bantu kingdom that controlled much of the surrounding territory. After Mapungabwe fell away, it was replaced by the Kingdom of Great Zimbabwe around 1250. This powerful empire thrived for nearly 200 years by supplying gold and ivory to Swahili traders from the north. Bantu civilizations continued to dominate South and East Africa politically until they were expelled by European colonial governments in the 18th century. Today, the Bantu peoples are as diverse as the lands they inhabit. Hundreds of societies in central and southern Africa trace their origins to the Bantu, and some 150 million Africans speak one of nearly 600 Bantu languages. Nonetheless, regional differences in environment, livelihood, and history have made each Bantu society and language unique. The Bantu languages are so diverse that people who speak one language usually cannot understand their neighbors who speak another language. Bantu patterns of social organization, forms of government, and methods of determining kinship vary widely. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Ethnic Groups and Identity, Livestock.)

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Bart, Heinrich

Barghash ibn Sa'id 1833 (?)–1888 Sultan of Zanzibar

Barth, Barth, Heinrich Heinrich 1821–1865 German traveler and explorer

* Caliphate

State in the Muslim Empire

Ultan Barghash ibn Sa'id ruled ZANZIBAR from 1870 until his death in 1888. He was a reformer who sought to eliminate corruption and improve Zanzibar's economy. Barghash rebuilt the carnation economy after it was destroyed by a hurricane in 1872. He later built a fleet of steamships that boosted the country's trade and revenues. The sultan used this new wealth to build a series of palaces and introduced public improvements such as electricity and piped water in the city of Zanzibar. However, the sultanate soon fell into the shadow of European colonial ambitions. In 1890, Germany and Britain signed two treaties that forced Barghash to accept a reduction in the size of Zanzibar. Germany conquered Tanganyika (part of present-day Tanzania), leaving Zanzibar only a narrow strip of coastal land in Kenya. The two offshore islands of Zanzibar and Pemba fell under British control. Barghash did not survive the dissolution of his sultanate. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

Einrich Barth was a German-born scholar who made two long journeys to Africa, which he chronicled in a book entitled Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa. Barth's extensive knowledge of the peoples and places described in his book made it a standard work for African scholars. Barth was educated in Berlin, where he received his doctorate in 1844. Although he already knew five languages, he went to London to perfect his Arabic before touring North Africa from 1845 to 1847. Shortly after his return to Germany, he accepted an invitation to join a British expedition to Central Africa. The expedition began in 1850, but within a year its leader, James Richardson, died. Barth took over the expedition, which researched further south to today's countries CHAD, CAMEROON, MALI, NIGER and NIGERIA. Before returning to Europe in 1855, Barth visited the Arab leaders of the Sokoto Caliphate* and their rivals in the cities of Kukawa and TIMBUKTU. After leaving Africa, Barth settled in London. There he wrote an account of his travels, which, however, received little attention. In addition, proud Barth fell out with the Royal Geographic Society and the British government. He went home to Germany in 1859, but had no success there either. He failed to win the political offices he sought and was denied full membership of the Royal Academy of Sciences. The University of Berlin also refused to appoint him as the successor to his mentor Karl Ritter as professor of geography. In 1862 he published an important book, the Collection of Vocabularies of Central African Languages. He died three years later without gaining any recognition for his achievements. That recognition came years after his death. (See also Travel and Explore.)

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Bello, Ahmadu

HEARTLAND

BECHUANALAND

BELGIAN COLONIES

Bello, Ahmadu 1910–1966 Premier of Northern Nigeria

Ben Bella, Ahmed 1918(?)- First President of Algeria

This is Lesotho.

Siehe Botswana.

See colonialism in Africa.

Hmadu Bello, a Nigerian leader, served as the first Prime Minister of Northern NIGERIA in 1954 when the country was under British rule. He was active in the Northern People's Congress (NPC), a cultural organization which he transformed into a political party in the early 1950s. Under Bello's leadership, Northern Nigeria and the NPC dominated Nigerian politics at the time of its independence in 1960. Bello was a direct descendant of the founder of the FULANI empire of Sokoto, a state in Northern Nigeria. He hoped to become the Surdauna of Sokoto, the spiritual leader of northern Nigeria's Muslim population. This position would have given him both political power and religious authority. However, Bello's ambitions were dashed when he was assassinated by the military during a riot in January 1966. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Independence Movements.)

Ahmed Ben Bella, a leading figure in Algeria's struggle for independence from France, was the country's first president from 1963 to 1965. Educated at a French primary school near Oran, ALGERIA, he became involved in the independence movement while continuing his studies in the nearby town of Tlemcen. During World War II he served in the French Army and was awarded the prestigious Croix de Guerre in 1940. After the war, Ben Bella returned home and helped found an underground political movement dedicated to armed struggle against French colonial rule. In 1950 he robbed a post office to raise money for independence efforts. He was captured and served two years in prison. After fleeing to Egypt, he met supporters of the Egyptian revolutionary leader Gamal Abdel NASSER. In 1954, Ben Bella and other Algerian leaders living in Egypt founded the National Liberation Front (FLN). The organization demanded the overthrow of French rule in Algeria and started a civil war. French

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Ben Bella authorities arrested Ben Bella in 1956 and he remained in prison until Algeria gained independence six years later. With the support of Colonel Houari BOUMÉDIENNE, head of the National Liberation Army, Ben Bella became prime minister. He was elected President in 1963. As president, Ben Bella restored order to war-torn Algeria and initiated reforms in education and agriculture. However, his policies were often poorly planned. In 1965, Boumédienne overthrew Ben Bella, who remained under house arrest until after Boumédienne's death. Released in 1980, Ben Bella spent the next ten years in exile, eventually returning to Algeria in 1990. (See also agriculture, colonialism in Africa, education, independence movements.)

Benin Benin

he Republic of Bénin is located in West Africa on the Gulf of Guinea. It borders NIGERIA to the east, TOGO to the west, and BURKINA FASO and NIGER to the north. Today's borders of Bénin were shaped by the Kingdom of Dahomey, which swept across the region in the mid-18th century, and by European countries attempting to establish empires in Africa.

GEOGRAPHY

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

Despite being entirely in the tropics, Benin exhibits considerable diversity in both its geography and climate. South Bénin was once covered with rainforests, but most of the land has been cleared for agriculture. The destruction of the rainforests has led to a decrease in rainfall during the two rainy seasons that the south experiences each year. Forests cover central Benin, savanna* dominates in the north-east and the Atakora Mountains rise in the north-west. North Benin has only one rainy season per year, making the region less suitable for growing crops. Most of Benin's population is concentrated in the south, where the land is better suited for agriculture. Both the capital of Benin, Porto Novo, and its largest city, Cotonou, are in this region.

ECONOMY * Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works * Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Total value of goods and services produced and consumed in a country

Bénin's economy is based on agriculture, informal trade (smuggling) and development aid. Due to a lack of infrastructure* - such as roads, railways and electricity generation - industry and trade in the country have only developed slowly. More than half of the people in Bénin make a living from agriculture, which accounts for around a third of the country's gross domestic product (GDP)*. However, most soils are of poor quality. Despite this disadvantage and a doubling of the population between 1962 and 1995, Bénin was able to produce enough food to feed itself. It also exports food to Nigeria. Rice, corn, peanuts and cotton are some of Benin's main crops. Palm oil and palm kernel oil are also important agricultural exports.

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Benign

NIGER

60 miles

they give

60 Kilometer

N U O

GUT

ACROSS FROM

Jack R.

Alibo ri R.

macro and r

BURKINA FASO

NIGERIA

Or in

é Riv is

2,234 feet.

Daily

Parakou

TOGO Savalou

Rffo Ku

Abomey

Mo no R

Porto Novo

Lome

Ouida

Cotonou

Lagos

Bénin has a long history of smuggling goods across the border with Nigeria. The goods move in both directions. Most of the cocoa harvest that Bénin exports is smuggled in from Nigeria. Illegal drugs from South America also reach Bénin before they are shipped to Europe. Regular trade with countries outside Africa accounts for more than a third of GDP. Trade with African countries is much less due to internal issues such as lack of transportation, tariff barriers, and officials imposing “tariffs” that they themselves retain. These help drive up the cost of shipping goods. Industrial development in Bénin, based on international funding, has not been very successful. Bénin has reduced the amount of oil

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Modern witch hunts in Bénin In the 1970s, President Kérékou's government tried to replace the local leaders of Bénin with people loyal to the President. Some of the old leaders were vodun (voodoo) priests, and the program to replace them led to a campaign to track down wizards and witches deemed dangerous. The first people accused of witchcraft held positions of power, but later the accused were mostly women and the elderly. Torture was often used to extract confessions. Many people opposed witch hunts, but others were glad that a government was finally addressing the fear of wizards that many people shared. Although the campaign divided communities and families, it enabled the government to replace old leaders.

* Federal organization of individual states with a central government

See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

Imports through the extraction of oil from offshore resources. Much of Bénin's electricity is generated in GHANA. Foreign countries and international institutions provide Bénin with more than US$250 million in economic aid annually. Much of this aid has been diverted to projects such as trying to introduce plow farming to the south. A large part of the funds also goes to paying government salaries, which take up a large part of the state budget.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT The history of Benin includes the history of several African kingdoms. Although Benin was the name of an ancient kingdom in modern-day Nigeria, that kingdom has nothing to do with modern-day Bénin. This state is a 20th-century invention created by French colonial officials who merged territories that had few connections. Pre-colonial Benin. Before the 18th century, the peoples of North Benin were closely linked to the other countries of West Africa. South Bénin was ruled by a series of kingdoms controlled by the Fon and Adja, related to peoples from Togo and Ghana. The most powerful of these kingdoms was that of Dahomey, which occupied southern Bénin and parts of present-day Togo and Nigeria. Dahomey built his power and wealth from trading slaves captured in raids on northern lands. The kingdom also produced palm oil and sold it to the French. When the transatlantic SLAVE TRADE ended in 1851, Dahomey had a product available to replace slaves. Colonial Benin. The French hoped to establish an empire in Africa and attempted to acquire lands on the West African coast. King Ghezo, who reigned from 1818 to 1856, gave France control of part of the coast that later became the city of Cotonou. However, the French wanted more territory and in 1890, with the help of the southern kingdom of Gun Dahomey, attacked. The attack failed, but the French succeeded two years later, and Dahomey became part of the Federation* of FRENCH WEST AFRICA. The French established an administration based in part on institutions of the Kingdom of Dahomey. Colonial authorities relied on powerful local individuals to conduct village and rural politics. This colonial structure was overseen by county officials who had the power to levy and collect taxes, recruit labor by force, and conscript individuals into the military. However, French rule in Dahomey was quite unstable and the colony brought little revenue. In the early 1900s, Dahomey experienced a series of brief uprisings among several local peoples. The call for independence grew louder after World War II. In 1960, France finally granted Dahomey independence. Fifteen years later, Dahomey changed its name to Bénin. Postcolonial Benin. Between 1960 and 1972, Benin had 12 separate governments, 5 of which were overthrown in coups*. During this period, French "technical advisers" actually controlled the work of government, and France paid off Benin's national debt. 1972 Army Commander

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Bénin *Communist referring to communism, a system in which land, goods and means of production belong to the state or community and not individuals *Cooperative refers to a company or organization owned by its workers *Nationalization to land, industries to bring or public works under government control or ownership

Bénin's waterways serve as important transportation routes. The inhabitants of this village build their houses directly above the water on high stilts.

Mathieu Kérékou took power and launched a communist* program of economic and social development. He took over large private plantations and turned them into agricultural cooperatives* and nationalized* many farms. The state also replaced local leaders who were not easily controlled by the central government. In the early 1980s, Benin fell into an economic crisis. Over the next few years, state-owned banks began to collapse and government employees' salaries were irregular. In 1989 the government cut spending and President Kérékou abandoned his communist political program and accepted a democratic constitution for Benin. In 1991, Nicephore Soglo was elected president in free elections. Three years later, Bénin suffered an economic crisis when its currency depreciated by 50 percent, but the situation stabilized within a few years. In 1996, Kérékou defeated Soglo and returned as the country's president. Government. The government of Benin is a democracy headed by a popularly elected President. The President appoints the Cabinet Ministers and the Governors of the six provinces of Benin. The Parliament of Benin has the power to make laws and make decisions about the budget. In a way, modern Bénin still functions like the colonial government. Local Author-

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Benin Republik Benin

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $1,300 MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: Palm oil, cotton, coffee, cocoa, cassava, sweet potatoes, corn, livestock, peanuts, timber Manufacturing: Vegetable oil processing, cement, textiles, palm products Mining: Offshore oil deposits, limestone , marble, iron ore

POPULATION: 6,395,919 (2000 est. population) AREA: 43,483 square miles. (112,620 km²) LANGUAGES: French (official); Fon, Yoruba, Adja, Banba

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1960. President elected by popular vote. Governing Bodies: Assemblée Nationale elected by universal suffrage.

NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Traditional 70%, Christian 15%, Muslim 15% CITIES: Porto Novo (capital), 330,000 (1999 est.); Cotonou, Abomey, Ouidah, Parakou, Natitingu ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 58 inches (1,500 mm) in the southeast to 30 inches (770 mm) in the extreme north

HEAD OF STATE SINCE 1980: 1972–1991 Major (later Generalleutnant) Mathieu Kérékou 1991–1996 President Nicéphore Soglo 1996– President Mathieu Kérékou STRENGTH: 4,800 (estimated in 1998) EDUCATION: Compulsory for 6–12 years; Literacy rate 37%

Cities have great influence and the central government relies on them to implement its policies. State laws often have limited control over the work of local government, and the opportunities for local corruption are great. Bénin has a powerful constitutional court that requires the government to be accountable for its actions. This has helped ensure that the laws passed by the government conform to the country's constitution.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES The colonial government classified the people of Bénin by language, although this was only one of many ways of identifying themselves. Some groups identify by lineage, others by ties to other peoples. In fact, the history of the people of the region has resulted in a very mixed settlement pattern. The largest single Beninese group are the Fon, whose Fongbe language is the dominant language in southern Benin. Before the colonial era, Fon society was based on slave raiding, and many slaves became Fon when they were placed in Fon households. However, the Fon did not absorb members of every group they ruled. The Ayizo, who were required to send humans to serve in the Fon army and speak a dialect of Fongbe, resisted any alliance or identification with the Fon. Bénin is home to several other ex-slave marauding peoples, such as the Wasangari and the YORUBA. Gur speakers of the north, called Berba, identify themselves through a common initiation ritual. The Baseda and other groups living near the Togolese border belong to a cultural association based on mutual defense.

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Bénin The Bénins belong to different religious groups. Although a third of the population adheres to either Christianity or Islam, the majority follow traditional African beliefs. Many practice VODUN, or Voodoo, a religion that originated in Benin and involves the worship of many gods. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Ethnic Groups and Identity, History of Africa, Land Ownership, Slavery, Witchcraft, and Sorcery.)

Benin City

Berber

he city of Benin, located in the state of Bendel in southern NIGERIA, is famous for the work of its numerous artisans. Despite its name, the city is not related to the nation of BÉNIN, which lies west of Nigeria. Around 1000 AD, a center of regional importance arose on the site of today's Benin City. Also known as Benin, this early city served as the seat of government for the ancient Kingdom of Benin. In the mid-12th century, Oba (King) Ewedo built an elaborate palace in the heart of the city. The capital was destroyed by an uprising around 1480 and rebuilt by the victorious leader Oba Ewuare. From then on, the city became a center for the manufacture of works of art in brass, ivory and wood. In 1897, the British sacked Benin City and confiscated most of the palace's ornaments and objects symbolizing the king's power. The city is still an important hub of regional trade and derives most of its income from the export of palm oil, rubber and timber.

The Berbers are a group of peoples living in North Africa and in the northern parts of the Saharan countries of MALI, NIGER and MAURITANIA. The Berbers have their own languages, belonging to the Hamitic or Afroasiatic language families, and they write in their own scripts. The Berbers, the region's indigenous people, resisted the Arab conquest of North Africa in AD 600. Eventually, however, they accepted Islam, the religion of the Arabs. During the 700s, the Berbers took part in the Arab conquest of Spain. A few centuries later they founded the Almoravids and the Almohads, two of the Islamic empires that ruled North Africa and Spain. During the 1800s, the Berbers fought against French colonization in Africa. With an estimated population of more than 12 million, the Berbers are made up of at least 200 groups or tribes. The Kabyle, Rif and Shluh are the largest of the Berber groups. The TUAREG, who live in the desert, are among the best known. Traditionally, the Berber economy depended on raising livestock, especially camels, and growing crops. Some Berbers living in the mountains on the edge of the Sahara continue to graze cattle and move seasonally to provide water and pasture for their herds. However, most Berbers live in rural settlements or small towns. Their livelihood is based partly on family businesses and partly on work

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Beti, Mongo

The Tuareg, a Berber group of the northern Sahel, are skilled camel herders. In this photo, a Tuareg rider jostle forward in a camel race.

Beti, Beti, Mongo Mongo 1932 - Cameroonian writer

of men who spend time working in North African or European cities and sending money home. Considered inferior by some urban Arabs and ruling parties, many Berbers live in poor and unproductive neighborhoods. (See also North Africa: History and Cultures.)

ongo Beti is Cameroon's most famous novelist. His early novels typically explore the conflict between traditional African values and those of European colonialists. His best-known works, published in the 1950s, feature characters who understand the injustice of colonial rule and realize that they must help end it. Beti's most famous novel, Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba, tells the story of a well-meaning missionary sent to convert a small village. He eventually realizes that the villagers come to him only to learn about Western technology and that they neither want nor need European religious leadership. Beti's later writing, beginning with the 1972 work Main basse sur le Cameroon: Autopsie d'une décolonisation, deals mainly with the abuses of dictatorship in post-colonial Africa. This book, which condemned the post-independence regime of CAMEROON, was banned in France for five years

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Beti, Mongo years. Beti's other novels are also heavily political, and many of them are still banned in his homeland. (See also Literature.)

BIAFRA, REPUBLIC

VON

Biko, Steve 1946–1977 South African social activist * Apartheid South Africa's racial segregation policies aimed to maintain white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race

Blyden, Edward Wilmot 1832–1912 Pioneer of Pan-African Unity

See Nigeria.

An outspoken opponent of apartheid*, Teve Biko rose to prominence as a leader of the Black Consciousness movement in the 1960s and 1970s. The movement was based on the belief that the divisions between whites and blacks in South Africa were so great that blacks could not count on whites to end apartheid. Biko also insisted that blacks must form their own political structures and develop a renewed sense of pride in their own culture, religion, and ethical system. Born in the Eastern Cape Province of SOUTH AFRICA, Biko studied Medicine at the University of Natal. During his studies he became politically active and founded a number of all-black clubs. His activities prompted the South African government in 1973 to restrict his movement and ban him from speaking or writing in public. Four years later, Biko was arrested and held without trial for violating his travel restrictions. He died in prison after being tortured by the police. His death served to rally opponents of apartheid, and Biko has been commemorated in song, drama and film around the world. (See also apartheid.)

Dward Blyden was a teacher and author who promoted the idea of black African pride. He emphasized the importance of African languages and cultures, but also explored the possibility of combining African and Western cultures. Inventor of the term "African personality," Blyden's writings laid the foundation for the NEGRITUDE movement in the mid-20th century. Blyden is of African descent and was born on the Caribbean island of St. Thomas. In 1850 he went to the United States to study at a theological college. However, the school refused to accept Blyden because of the color of his skin. The following year Blyden emigrated to LIBERIA where he worked as a minister, teacher and newspaper editor. He also served as Liberian Ambassador to Britain and President of Liberia College. Blyden later moved to FREETOWN, the capital of SIERRA LEONE. There he became increasingly interested in Islam and held the post of Director of Muslim Education. Blyden died in Freetown in 1912, but his ideas had a tremendous impact on African and African American leaders and intellectuals in the twentieth century. (See also independence movements.)

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body jewelry and clothing

body body jewelry jewelry and clothing clothing

* ocher or yellow ferruginous earth used for dyeing paints and textiles

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern

* Raffia palm used for weaving and basket weaving

People share information about themselves through the clothes they wear and the way they decorate their bodies. In Africa, body jewelry and clothing can provide clues as to a person's age, ethnic group, region, social position, and even political opinions. As western-style clothing becomes more common in Africa, some traditional styles of jewelry and clothing are fading from everyday use—particularly in the cities. However, many Africans still wear traditional dress and decorations on special occasions or as a form of self-expression. body jewellery. Africans have been adorning themselves since at least 4000 BC. with color or pigment when the people of SUDAN used ocher* as a cosmetic. The ancient Egyptians also used cosmetics and beautified their lips and cheeks with red paint. Men, women and children in Egypt wore eye color or kajal on both the upper and lower eyelids. Cabbage was considered not only beautiful, but also helped protect the eyes from insects and the glare of the sun. Body painting also functions as a sign of social status and ethnic origin and is part of many African rituals*. Turkana men in KENYA bake their hair with clay and red dye to celebrate a successful hunt or the end of planting. In many parts of the continent, adorning the body with white clay represents spirituality. Ceremonies marking a new chapter in life often involve body painting. Young Dan women from IVORY COAST, for example, paint themselves in bold geometric patterns during rituals marking the transition from girlhood to womanhood. For many years people across Africa have been creating permanent body adornments by scarring or small cuts in the skin. As they heal, these small wounds form scars. The procedure is usually performed in infancy, and the patterns and designs of the scars often resemble those used in group pottery and sculpture. Both men and women carry these scars, usually on the face, torso, thigh, or upper arm. Some types of scarification have special meanings. For example, certain scars on the foreheads of men in the IGBO region of Nigeria indicate high social rank. In some cultures, scarification is believed to make a person more beautiful or provide magical or protective benefits. Because different peoples have developed different scar styles, scars can also identify the wearer as a member of a particular ethnic group. Other types of body jewelry practiced in Africa are also permanent. In North Africa, some Bedouin and BERBER tribes mark their faces with tattoos. Berber tattoos often indicate affiliation to a particular group and are modeled on ancient Libyan script. Some East African peoples beautify themselves by extracting certain teeth, or by filing or chopping their teeth into sharp points. Other groups poke holes in their lips and earlobes, and then gradually stretch them by inserting larger and larger plugs or plates. Clothing. Long ago, Africans wore skins, woven grass and bast*, leaves and cloth made from tree bark. Today such items are only used in a few places or at certain ceremonies. The Kuba people in the CONGO

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Body Adornment and Clothing The Ancient Art of Beadwork Since prehistoric times, Africans have made beads of stone, shell, ivory, metal and glass. People in West and Central Africa cover garments with intricate images or designs made from tiny beads. Some fine beadwork was traditionally reserved for officials such as the kings of Benin and Yoruba. Women in Nigeria and Mali work pearls into elaborate hairstyles. In East Africa, both men and women can wear beaded ornaments indicating their clan, village, wealth, age, and marital status. African beadwork is more than just beautiful. It is a strong expression of personal identity and style. * Amulet Small object believed to have supernatural or magical powers

See Color Plate 15, Vol. 1.

See Color Plate 12, Vol. 3.

(KINSHASA) still produce the embroidered raffia shirts with geometric designs that both men and women wore to rituals and public events. Today, however, the main function of these shirts is to dress the dead at funerals. Most Africans wear garments made of woven cotton fabric. Men appear in a variety of gowns and robes. Rural men in Egypt and Sudan may wear jellaba, an ankle-length robe with sleeves and side pockets that can be worn over a shirt. A similarly long, loose robe is the dishdasha, worn by both men and women in ALGERIA. Many African garments are made from a single piece of fabric. Women often wear wrappers - large rectangles of fabric that they wrap around their bodies. Often at home, a woman dresses in a single cape, tucked and twisted under her arms, adding additional items when appearing in public. The typical YORUBA women's outfit consists of a wrap tied at the waist, a smaller shawl worn over the first wrap or over the left shoulder, and a long-sleeved blouse. Nomadic men in Mali wear patterned woolen blankets during the cold nights of the dry season. In parts of GHANA and Ivory Coast, men wrap themselves in a large, rectangular piece of cloth that drapes over the left shoulder. Some African clothing has a special meaning. A man's social position may be announced by the size and shape of his tunic or by the ornamentation of his robe. Among the BAMBARA in MALI, hunters demonstrate their skills by wearing white coats adorned with leather-covered amulets* and hunting trophies. A skilled hunter's shirt can be almost invisible beneath the horns, claws, and bits or pelts attached to it by the wearer. Sometimes a particular fabric pattern has a name that refers to a proverb, local event, or political issue. People wear these scarves because of the messages the patterns convey. accessories and hairstyles. Jewelry and other accessories can express even more about their wearer than clothing. Different styles of brass, stone, bone or iron bracelets and bracelets can explain an African's success, gender or religion. In some cases, much of a person's wealth is carried in the form of gold jewelry. Belts, hats and jewelry can be embellished with beadwork in designs that represent a specific idea or message. Accessories often indicate a person's authority. In some societies, only leaders or members of special groups are allowed to wear items made of precious materials such as ivory or gold. The pharaohs who ruled ancient Egypt wore a type of pearl necklace reserved only for gods. In ancient Benin, the king's traditional costume consisted of a coral-studded crown and smock, with jewelry made of ivory and coral. The red of the coral represented power, while the white of the ivory represented spiritual purity. Among the ZULU of SOUTH AFRICA, the king wears a necklace of leopard claws, while lowly chiefs wear bone ornaments carved in the shape of leopard claws. Fly whisks—animal hair attached to handles used to wave flies away—are leadership symbols used by men across Africa. Both traditional and modern rulers often wear them in public appearances. Headgear is perhaps most widespread in North Africa

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body jewelry and clothing

Africans use a variety of items to adorn themselves and their clothing. These Gikuyu dancers in Kenya paint their faces and wear beaded belts and bracelets.

accessory. Some men wear the traditional Arabic headscarf, or kafiyya, tied with a cord. Others may wear the fez, a cylindrical hat native to the region. Among the TUAREG in the Sahara region, men cover their heads and faces with long veils dyed indigo blue, while women wear headscarves. Women in Muslim countries or communities traditionally have their heads and faces covered with a veil. Hairstyles are also used in parts of Africa to express both symbolic meaning and personal style. Common styling techniques include shaving, braiding, stringing beads onto the hair, weaving fibers into the hair, and shaping the hair with mud or clay. Some races use hairstyles to mark periods of life. Young MAASAI men shave their heads when they become adult warriors. They then let their hair grow long and spent hours styling each other's hair into elaborate arrangements of many twisted strands coated in red mud. (See also arts, crafts, initiation rites.)

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Bokassa, Jean-Bedel

PEASANT WAR

Bokassa, Jean-Bédel 1921–1996 President of the Central African Republic * Coup sudden, often violent overthrow of a ruler or government

* Misappropriation illegal appropriation of entrusted money for personal use

Bornu * Dynasty succession of rulers from the same family or group

See African Republics; South Africa; Southern Africa History.

The military leader Jean-Bédel Bokassa became President of the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC in 1966 after a coup d'état*. Eleven years later he had himself proclaimed emperor and renamed the country the Central African Empire. The son of a village chief, Bokassa began his military career in 1939 in the French army. He fought in Indochina and achieved the rank of captain in 1961. By this time, the Central African Republic had gained independence from France and David Dacko was the new country's President. Bokassa returned home and was appointed Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces in 1964. Two years later he overthrew Dacko's government and in 1977 Bokassa proclaimed himself Emperor of the Central African Republic. After more than 12 years as President and Emperor, Bokassa's downfall began in 1979 when he ordered the army to shoot protesters. About 400 people died. Strikes by teachers and students led to the arrest, torture and killing of children. Bokassa was overthrown and moved abroad. When he returned to the Central African Republic in 1986, he was arrested and charged with embezzlement*, murder and cannibalism. He was sentenced to death in 1987. Released six years later, Bokassa remained in the Central African Republic until his death.

he Empire of Bornou existed in north-central Africa from about 1400 to 1900, when it became part of the British Empire. Bornu originated in an earlier state called Kanem, which arose around 1200 in what is now southwestern Chad. The leaders of Kanem were divided into two competing dynasties*: the Duguwa and the Sayfuwu. The Sayfuwu were expelled from Kanem in the mid-13th century and established the state of Bornu on the southwest shore of Lake Chad. They increased their power by defeating the local Sao people in the early 1300s. However, dynastic feuds troubled Bornu until the ruler Ali Gaji seized power in the mid-15th century. Under his rule, Bornu extended its influence into the HAUSA states (now Northwest NIGERIA). Bornu invaded Kanem in the early 15th century and again in the late 15th century, forcing its rulers to flee to the southeastern part of the kingdom. Under King Idris Alauma, Bornu conquered areas in northern modern-day Libya and drove the Sao to islands in Lake Chad. Attacked by the FULANI in the early 18th century, Bornu managed to defeat the invaders in the 1820s. At the end of the 19th century, the Arab warrior Rabih Zubayr conquered Bornu. Rabih died in 1900 and two years later the British moved to Bornou and made it part of their Bornou colony

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Botswana Nigeria. The Kingdom of Kanuri still exists and is possibly the oldest state in Africa. (See also Sudanese Empires of West Africa.)

Botsuana Botsuana

See map in Minerals and Mining (Vol. 3).

he country of Botswana is located in the center of southern Africa, surrounded by ZIMBABWE, ZAMBIA, NAMIBIA and SOUTH AFRICA. Since gaining independence from Britain in 1966, Botswana has become one of the most successful new nations in Africa. geography and economy. Botswana is an arid country dominated by the KALAHARI DESERT, which occupies the western two-thirds of the country. Drought is a permanent phenomenon of the climate. Almost all of Botswana's surface water lies in the rivers of the Okavango Delta in the northwest. Most of the vegetation consists of dry grasses that are used as grazing animals. Gaborone, the capital, is in the southeast near the border with South Africa. Before diamonds were discovered in the 1970s, Botswana's economy was based on livestock and money sent home by migrant workers. However, diamond revenues have made Botswana the fastest growing economy in the world. The country has managed its wealth well,

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Botswana Racial Politics In 1948 Seretse Khama from Bechuanaland married a white woman named Ruth Williams in England. Shortly thereafter, the South African government adopted a policy of apartheid and demanded the incorporation of Bechuanaland into the country. As a gesture to South Africa, the British banned Khama from his homeland. However, support in Bechuanaland for Khama and his marriage, and opposition to incorporation into South Africa, prompted Britain to tread cautiously. The British eventually refused to make Bechuanaland part of South Africa. They allowed Khama to return in 1956 and within ten years he was elected the first President of an independent Botswana. * Basic structure of a society's infrastructure and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works * Economic or political system of socialism based on the idea that government or groups of workers own and operate the means should production and distribution of goods * Apartheid South Africa's racial segregation policies aimed at maintaining white control over the country's Black, Asian and mixed-race people * Sanction measure taken by one or more nations to coerce another nation to change their policies or behavior

Avoid the boom and bust cycles common to many mineral-based economies. It has a small but well-functioning infrastructure* and the government has actively encouraged the growth of industry and commerce. As a result, the median income is much higher than in most developing countries. Most of the people of Botswana known as Batswana still live in rural areas and make a living from agriculture and animal husbandry. The country is heavily dependent on South Africa for manufactured goods and the gap between rich and poor is among the highest in the world. Despite these difficulties, Botswana's economy is considered a model of success for developing countries. history and government. The people of the area now known as Botswana had little or no contact with Europeans until the late 19th century. At that time there were fights with Africans (or Boers), Dutch settlers from what is now South Africa. In 1885, KHAMA III, chief of the Tswana people, asked Britain for help against the Africans, and the region (then known as Bechuanaland) came under British protection. After World War II, Bechuanaland, like many other African territories, sought independence from colonial rule. The independence movement gained momentum in the 1950s under the leadership of SERETSE KHAMA, a descendant of Khama III. By 1960, the people of Bechuanaland had gained the right to form independent political parties. The most influential of the early political parties was the Bechuanaland People's Party (BPP). Supported by urban migrant workers, the BPP called for immediate independence and a socialist form of government. Seretse Khama, believing the BPP to be too extreme, formed the rival Bechuanaland Democratic Party (BDP). The BDP's supporters were mostly rural, and its leadership consisted mainly of cattle owners who had inherited their wealth. Like the BPP, the party aimed for independence but was not interested in socialism*. The BDP won the first multi-party national elections in 1965 with an overwhelming majority. The following year, Bechuanaland gained independence and renamed itself the Republic of Botswana. After independence, Botswana defied the South African apartheid* government. However, it did not support United Nations sanctions* against South Africa because it was dependent on trade with that country. In the 1970s, Botswana had a strained relationship with the racist state of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and provided a haven for Rhodesian refugees. Rhodesia would occasionally raid Botswana in pursuit of these fugitives. In the 1980s, South Africa accused Botswana of protecting anti-apartheid terrorists and in 1985 South African forces attacked Botswana. Since then, the conflict between Botswana and South Africa has calmed down and the two countries have established diplomatic relations. Political power in Botswana is shared between a directly elected National Assembly and a President elected by the Assembly. Elected councils oversee affairs at the county, city, and city levels, but all of these councils depend on national government for funding. A body called the House of Chiefs, composed of the hereditary chiefs of the main Tswana

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Botswana Republik Botswana

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $3,600 MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: Livestock, sorghum, corn, millet, legumes, peanuts, beans, cowpeas, sunflower seeds Manufacturing: Meat processing, diamond processing, soda ash Mining: Diamonds, nickel, copper, coal, salt, potash

POPULATION: 1,576,470 (2000 est. population) AREA: 231,804 square miles. (600,372 km²) LANGUAGES: English, Setswana (both official)

GOVERNMENT: Independence from Great Britain, 1966. President elected by National Assembly. Governing Bodies: National Assembly elected by universal adult suffrage and House of Chiefs.

NATIONAL CURRENCY: Pula MAIN RELIGIONS: Christian 50%, Traditional 50% CITIES: Gaborone (capital), 134,000 (1999 est.); Precipitation in Serowe, Francistown, Lobatse, Selibi-Phikwe, Kanye, Maun, Molepolole, Mochudi, Ghanzi districts ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 18-25 inches. (460–625 mm) extreme northwest to less than 5 in. (125 mm) in the extreme southwest

HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1966-1980 President Seretse Khama 1980-1998 President Quett Ketumile Joni Masire 1998- President Festus Mogae ARMED FORCES: 8,500 EDUCATION: Compulsory for 7 years; Literacy rate 70%

tribes, advises the assembly and exercises local political and judicial functions. The political situation in Botswana has been remarkably stable since independence, with free and open elections. This was made possible primarily by the fact that the BDP has little effective opposition. The strength of Botswana's diamond-based economy has also helped the party maintain its political power. The Botswana National Front (BNF) has been the main opposition party since independence. Although the party achieved some success in local elections, it has not gained much power at the national level.

See Color Plate 2, Vol. 4.

peoples and cultures. The main language groups in Botswana are Bantu and KHOISAN. Among the Bantu speakers, the Tswana are both the most numerous and the largest single group in Botswana. The Tswana are divided into smaller local groups, each with their own chief. Tswana families often have three houses: one in a village near schools and shops, one near a waterhole where they keep their livestock, and one near their farmland. In the village, the Tswana practice a democratic form of leadership based on discussions in the Kgotla, a central meeting place. Women usually work the land that grows crops, and men generally tend the flocks at the cattle post. The Tswana place great value on cattle, which are often used as currency. Other Bantu-speaking groups include the Herero and Mbanderu, who also raise cattle, and the Mbukushu, whose livelihoods are based on fishing and agriculture. The Khoisan peoples of Botswana can be divided into Northern, Southern and Central language groups. Many of them work as herdsmen for landowners in Tswana. The northern Khoisan are known as the

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Botswana !Kung, and the main southern group are the !Xo. Cattle and goatherds called Khoikhoi also live in the south near the Namibian border. The central Khoisan group includes a large number of peoples who have adopted Tswana customs, including cattle breeding. In addition, there is a sizeable white population in Botswana, many of whom are pastoralists living near the South African border or in the central-western Kalahari. (See also apartheid, Bantu peoples, climate, colonialism in Africa, deserts and drought, ranching, refugees.)

Boumédienne, Houari ca. 1927–1978 President of Algeria * Coup sudden, often violent overthrow of a ruler or government

Ending borders in Africa *

resident in a specific place

Oauri Boumédienne was the first Vice President of Algeria after it gained independence from France in 1962. Three years later he led a coup* against President Ahmed BEN BELLA. Boumédienne became President of Algeria and remained in this position until his death. In his youth, Boumédienne was involved in the movement for Algerian independence. During the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962) he rose to prominence as a military leader in the National Liberation Army. Although he and Ben Bella supported each other in the early years, political disagreements arose between them about governing the newly independent country. After Boumédienne staged his coup and took over government, he retained control of the economy, believing that economic decisions would be better made by a central authority. He is credited with helping to improve the Algerian economy, however, it was in decline at the time of his death. (See also independence movements.)

Before the arrival of European colonists, African borders were very loosely defined. Boundaries reflected the areas inhabited and controlled by different ethnic groups, and they often changed over time—generally as a result of migration or conquest. Furthermore, these borders did not define all available space in Africa. Some areas remained unclaimed or served as neutral zones between indigenous* ethnic groups. European nations began to redraw Africa's territorial boundaries in the late 18th century as their interests shifted from establishing coastal trading posts to exploring the continent's rich inland resources. In the 1880s, European explorers such as Sir Richard BURTON, David LIVINGSTONE, Henry Morton STANLEY and John Speke made national claims to ever-increasing swathes of African territory. Many explorers arranged treaties with African chiefs and claimed the lands for European rulers. Although much of Africa remained unknown and unexplored, European competition for territory increased with a desire to seize control of minerals and other riches from the African interior. During this "Scramble for Africa" European countries tried to conquer as much territory as possible. The amount of territory each nation has

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Bourguiba, which Habib actually colonized, depended largely on his power in Europe. Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy, which were strong and emerging European powers, ended up controlling more land in Africa than weaker countries like Spain and Portugal. As a result of the Scramble, the map of Africa changed from a collection of loosely defined ethnic territories into a series of established colonial states. European colonists set borders according to their territorial claims, without regard to the traditional borders of indigenous peoples. In some cases, these new territorial lines divided ethnic groups between different colonial powers. In other cases, they brought together groups with a history of hostility towards one another in a colony. Europeans set boundaries geographically - or sometimes simply by drawing a straight line on a map. Natural features, particularly rivers and lakes, often became the boundaries of European colonies. For the most part, such lines remained fixed except when redrawn as a result of the changing fortunes of the colonial powers. For example, Germany lost its African territories after defeat in World War I, and these territories were incorporated into other nations' colonies. African nations began to gain independence in the 1950s, but colonial borders remained essentially unchanged. First, some African leaders called for the creation of a sort of United States of Africa with relatively open borders between nations. This idea never caught on. In some regions, border disputes - such as between SOMALIA and ETHIOPIA - have contributed to ongoing or recurrent conflicts. Today, the borders that separate and define Africa's many nations are still largely based on the lines drawn by Europeans. National borders often separate members of ethnic groups or force historical enemies to live together. In such areas, people's allegiance to the state is often challenged by tribal and ethnic allegiances, and political unrest is commonplace. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Ethnic Groups and Identity, Nationalism.)

Bourguiba, Habib 1903–2000 President of Tunisia * Nationalist devoted to his country's interests and culture

* Economic or political system of socialism based on the idea that the government or groups of workers should own and operate the means of production and the distribution of goods

Abib Bourguiba, son of a former Tunisian army officer, grew up under French colonial rule in TUNISIA. He was one of the leaders of his country's independence movement, becoming its first president in 1957. After a good education in Tunisia, the young Bourguiba studied law in Paris. There he met other North Africans who were campaigning for independence from France. During this period, Bourguiba's political interest developed and after his return home he became active in the nationalist* movement. In the 1930s he founded the Neo-Destour party. Over the years he turned the nationalist movement into a mass movement. He also spent some time in prison because of his political activities against French colonial rule. Faced with widespread support for independence across the country, the French decided to negotiate. They agreed on self-government for Tunisia in 1955 and full independence in 1956. The new President, Bourguiba, soon embraced socialism* and declared his own political party, Neo-Destour, to be the only one in the country. his government

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Burguiba, Habib

* Cooperative farm Large property farmed by many farmers

Braide, Garrick Sokari ca. 1882–1918 Nigerian religious leader * Cult group held together by devotion to a particular person, belief or god * Anglican

Church of England

* Sedition, resistance, or rebellion against a legitimate authority

Ernment took over Tunisia's trade and industry and founded agricultural cooperatives*. When his policies proved unpopular, he changed course somewhat. Bourguiba's demands for a settlement of the heated Arab-Israeli dispute did not win him friends among Arab nations. Furthermore, his policy of banning traditional Muslim religious practices made him unpopular with many in his own country. In the late 1970s, Bourguiba's government came under attack for failing to make policy changes. In addition, his poor health led to widespread bouts of inexplicable behavior. In 1987, his appointed successor, General Zayn al-Abidine Ben Ali, had doctors declare Bourguiba unfit to govern. The ousted president retreated to a palace in his home village on the Tunisian coast. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Independence Movements.)

Arrick Sokari Braide, a Nigerian missionary and prophet, was instrumental in spreading Christianity in the Niger Delta region of Africa in the early 20th century. His sermons and methods combined traditional African elements with Christianity, emphasizing prayer and faith healing. Braide was born in the village of Obonoma, the center of a cult* to a god named Ogu. Some accounts of Braide's life state that he practiced Ogunism as a youth. After becoming a Christian, Braide campaigned against the use of African religious symbols. But elements of Ogunism remained in his practice of Christianity. In the late 1880s Braide probably attended the open-air Christian meetings held in his village. He was active in the Anglican* Church and took lessons in Christianity for many years. He graduated and was baptized at the age of 28. Braide later became a minister and missionary and a prominent leader of the Niger Delta Pastorate Church. He was known for his gifts of prayer, prophecy and healing. His reputation for performing miracles and magic, such as causing rain and storms, won him widespread recognition. Braide preached against the consumption of alcohol because drunkenness was a problem in the villages of the Niger Delta. His anti-alcohol movement caused conflict with the British, who at the time ruled Nigeria and benefited greatly from the sale of alcohol in their colonies. Concerned about Braide's rise as a socialite with a large following, the British arrested him in 1916 for sedition*. Braide was found guilty and imprisoned, but he was released a few months before his death. Braide left two legacies to Africa - the first was the spread of Christianity in Nigeria. The number of baptized Christians in the Niger Delta increased by nearly 11,000 during the years he preached. Second, Braide has shown Nigerians that they have the potential to become independent. As a leader who opposed the colonial government and broke with the traditional church, he demonstrated that Africans could rise up and take control. (See also Christianity in Africa, Religion and Ritual.)

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Brink, Andre

Brazzaville

Brink, Brink, André André 1935 – South African writer * South Africa's apartheid policies of racial segregation aimed to maintain white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race

British colonies

he city of Brazzaville is the capital of the Republic of the Congo and one of the most important industrial centers in the country. It lies on the west bank of the Malebo Pool at the beginning of the navigable section of the upper Congo River, a place known as "the gateway to the heart of Africa". Founded by the French in 1883, the city takes its name from explorer Pierre de Brazza, who signed a treaty with a local king that gave France control of key parts of the region. Due to its location, Brazzaville became an important base in the French colonial empire in West Africa. During World War II it was the center of French resistance against Germany and its allies in Africa. Today, Brazzaville is one of the Congo's industrial centers (the others are Pointe-Noire on the Atlantic coast and N'kayi, which lies between Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire). The leading industries in Brazzaville are textiles, food processing and leather goods. Many goods are transported between Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire, both by train and, in recent years, by motor vehicle and air. Brazzaville is home to one of Congo's two international airports. Brazzaville has been the capital of Congo since the country gained independence in 1960. The city has a population of about 1 million, almost a third of the country's population. It is a major port on the Congo and serves as the headquarters for many important African organizations. These include the African Headquarters of the World Health Organization, the Pan-African Union for Science and Technology and the African Petroleum Producer's Association. Brazzaville is also home to many educational, scientific and technical institutions. (See also Congo (Brazzaville).)

ndré Phillipus Brink is a South African writer who writes in both Afrikaans and English. He is known as one of the 'Sixtyers', writers of the 1960s who sought to revolutionize South African fiction by tackling social, moral and political issues. Brink was born in SOUTH AFRICA and educated both there and in France. His early books were not political in nature, but his later ones explored the human cost of the government's apartheid policies*. His novel An Instant in the Wind (1975) addresses the destructive nature of racism by examining the relationship between a black man and a white woman. In The Chain of Voices (1982), Brink looks at an 1825 slave rebellion through the eyes of characters on both sides of the conflict. Although Brink's novels have been praised outside of South Africa, they have often been unpopular in his homeland, and some have been banned by the South African government. (See also apartheid, literature.)

See colonialism in Africa.

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Burkina Faso

Urkina Faso, formerly known as Upper Volta, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is one of many states that emerged after the collapse of the French colonial empire. Although the nation experienced periods of unrest following independence in 1960, it has become a relatively stable country. The name Burkina Faso means "land of the honorable people" or "home of the proud people".

GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY * Savannah, tropical or subtropical grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

* Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works

Burkina Faso is a fairly flat country dominated by forests and savannas*. Towering mounds of red termites dot the grasslands. The northern region is fairly dry, as is the southern edge of the country, averaging only about 5 inches of rain per year. The central and southern regions of the country are generally much wetter, receiving 2 to 3 feet of rain annually. In all areas, rains tend to fall in short, heavy storms that can wash away crops and topsoil. Most of the population lives from agriculture, animal husbandry, cotton and food crops. Livestock and related products such as meat and leather contribute about a third of Burkina Faso's export earnings. Another important export item is labor. Around a million Burkinabé live in neighboring Ivory Coast and send money home to relatives. Many more residents are leaving the country to find temporary or seasonal work. Burkina Faso's small industry is mostly concentrated in cities like the capital, Ouagadougou. For years most industries were state-owned, but since 1991 many have become privately owned. The country's gold mining industry has grown in importance since the 1980s. However, a lack of funding and infrastructure* such as roads and railways has hampered mining of other minerals.

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Burkina Faso Film Festival Burkina Faso has been an important center of African film for more than 30 years. Every two years, the country's capital hosts Africa's largest film festival, the Festival Panafricain du Cinéma et de la Télévision de Ouagadougou (FESPACO). The event features a competition of African films from across the continent. Shortly after film enthusiasts created the festival in 1969, FESPACO became a state-sponsored institution. Today, FESPACO acts as a marketplace for African film and television professionals, publishes works on African cinema and maintains an African film library. It also strives to promote African cinema in other international festivals.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT Unlike much of West Africa, Burkina Faso remained untouched by European influence until the late 1890s. Then the French gained control of the area and ruled it from 1904 to 1960. Pre-colonial and colonial history. Before the arrival of Europeans, many small, household and village based societies occupied the western part of what is now Burkina Faso. MOSSI people from the south invaded the central and eastern areas of the region in the 14th century. According to tradition, the Mossi are descended from Naaba Wedraogo, the son of a princess from a town in northern GHANA. For many years the Mossi roamed the region conquering new territories. In the late 1400s and early 1500s they established several kingdoms, the most important of which were Ouagadougou and Yatenga. The kingdoms had complex political and religious systems. The French arrived in the region in the 1870s. Over the next few decades, they formed alliances with African societies living around the Mossi. In 1896 and 1897, the French defeated the Mossi and other independent peoples nearby. The French named the region Upper Volta and declared it a military zone in 1899. A few years later they incorporated the area into the Upper Volta-Senegal-Niger colony. The French colonial government introduced taxes and conscription, forcing Africans to work for little or no wages. This treatment led to several rebellions - especially among the western peoples. The French crushed these uprisings and destroyed all traces of African rule. Upper Volta became a separate colony in 1919. However, the French soon found that their only economic value was in attracting labor for other colonies. Within 13 years they divided the territory of Upper Volta between the colonies of Ivory Coast, NIGER and Sudan (now MALI). After World War II, France granted new political rights to its African colonies. In response to pressure from the Mossi leaders, Obervolta made it a separate colony again in 1947. When France allowed each of its African colonies to vote for independence in 1958, Upper Volta chose to remain a largely self-governing French colony. Maurice Yaméogo, leader of Upper Volta's main political party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (RDA), was elected President of the Council of Ministers. In 1960 he banned the largest opposition party. Later that year, Upper Volta applied for and received independence from France. With no organized opposition, Yaméogo was elected president and the RDA became the dominant political force in the country. The early republics. Yaméogo was re-elected in 1965 with almost 100 percent of the vote. Then he tried to severely limit government spending. Unions protested the restrictions by calling a general strike in January the following year. Amid the unrest, the army overthrew the Yaméogo government and Colonel Sangoulé Lamizana took over the presidency. Lamizana ended Yaméogo's political ban. However, when violence broke out between competing political

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Burkina Faso

Traditional and modern cultures mingle at this urban market in Burkina Faso, where handcrafted items are sold alongside industrially manufactured household appliances.

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

100

groups, Lamizana re-imposed the ban. He announced military rule but promised to restore civilian government after four years. In 1970 free elections were held and a new constitution created the Second Republic of Upper Volta. The constitution provided for Lamizana to remain president for four years and required military participation in all political institutions. A new crisis arose in 1974 when Prime Minister Gérard Ouédraogo lost support in Parliament but refused to resign. Lamizana again proclaimed military rule and banned political parties. The following year, when he attempted to form a single political party for the nation, the unions responded angrily with another general strike. Lamizana relented and appointed a new government composed mostly of civilians in January 1976. In 1977 a different constitution established the Third Republic. It limited the number of political parties to the top three voters in the subsequent national elections. Lamizana was re-elected as President. However, no single political party gained control of a majority of seats in the assembly. The result was a weak government, which again ran into trouble with the unions. A strike in late 1980 was followed by a military coup led by Colonel Saye Zerbo. However, tensions between military government leaders grew, and Zerbo himself was overthrown in late 1982.

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Burkina Faso Burkina Faso

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: Peanuts, Livestock, Cotton, Sesame, Sorghum, Millet, Corn, Rice, Shea Nuts Manufacturing: Cotton Tint, Food & Beverage Processing, Soap, Agricultural Processing, Cigarettes, Textiles Mining: Gold, Manganese, Limestone, Marble, Antimony, Copper, Nickel, Bauxite, Lead, Phosphate, Zinc, Silver

POPULATION: 11,946,065 (2000 est. population) AREA: 105,869 km². our. (274,200 km²) LANGUAGES: French (official); Mossi, Dyula, many local languages NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Muslim 50%, traditional 40%, Christian 10% CITIES: Ouagadougou (capital), 1,100,000 (2000 est.); Snowfall in the BoboDioulasso, Coudougou, Ouahigouya, Kaya, Banfora area ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 40 in. (1,000 mm) in the south to less than 10 in. (250mm) to the north

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1960. President elected by popular vote. Governing Bodies: National Bicameral Parliaments – Assembly of People's Deputies and House of Representatives. HEAD OF STATE: 1980-1982 Colonel Saye Zerbo 1982-1983 Surgeon-Major Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo 1983-1987 Capt. Thomas Sankara 1987- President Capt. Blaise Compaoré FORCES: 5,800 (1998 est.) 18 months compulsory service. EDUCATION: Compulsory for ages 7-13; Literacy rate 19%

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $1,000

*Communist refers to communism, a system in which land, goods, and means of production belong to the state or community rather than individuals. * Totalitarian refers to a government that exercises complete control over individuals, often by force

Communist Rule and the Fourth Republic. The leaders of the coup created a governing body called the Council for the People's Salvation (CSP). The CSP appointed Surgeon-Major Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo as President and Captain Thomas Sankara as Prime Minister. Sankara quickly left the nation's western allies and forged ties with developing countries such as Libya, Cuba and North Korea. Critics within the government arrested Sankara in May 1983, but Captain Blaise Compaoré freed him in August and overthrew the CSP. Supported by communist* groups, Sankara pursued a foreign policy that opposed Western governments. To symbolize the country's break with its colonial, pro-Western past, Sankara changed the name from Upper Volta to Burkina Faso in 1984. He set up "revolutionary councils" at all levels of society to try to establish a totalitarian* system with himself at the top. However, as Shankara began to use violence to maintain power, opposition to his rule increased. He eventually lost the support of his own people and in October 1987, Captain Compaoré ordered his troops to kill Sankara. Compaoré reversed many of Sankara's policies and rejected the previous government's communist affiliations. In 1991, a new constitution was adopted, reintroducing multiparty politics and direct elections for the President and the National Assembly (Assemblée des Députés Populaires). Later that year, Compaoré was elected the first President of the Fourth Republic. However, the opposing parties refused to take part in the election because they felt that the government was not protecting their rights. In response, Compaoré ended the persecution of his political opponents and called new elections in April 1992. He was re-elected and elected

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Burkina Faso

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1899 France takes control of the region; calls it Upper Volta.

1919 Upper Volta becomes an independent French colony.

1960 Upper Volta becomes independent.

1965 The military takes over the government.

1984 Upper Volta becomes Burkina Faso.

1991 New constitution leads to multi-party system.

* Tribute paid by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under threat of violence

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continues to serve as the country's president. However, his government has not always responded well to criticism, and in 1995 an opposition leader was jailed for insulting Compaoré.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES Many different ethnic groups live in Burkina Faso. The largest of them, the Mossi, make up almost half of the population. Other large groups are the FULANI, the Gulmanceba and the Gurunsi. The social organization of most of these peoples is based on lineage - a kind of extended family. Each lineage traces its origins to a common, often mythical, ancestor and forms a group typically residing in a specific village area. Most lineages trace back to male family members. Older members of society are treated with great respect. In many places, the oldest male family member makes all the important decisions for his family. The eldest male of a lineage is responsible for dealing with local gods. In many cases, he is also responsible for law enforcement and serves as a peacemaker. Although women hold few leadership or religious positions, they do exercise informal influence. A male political leader, a Naaba, occupies a sacred position among the Mossi, the Gulmanceba and the Gurunsi. In addition to his special spiritual powers, the Naaba owns the land and its inhabitants. Formerly he could demand subjects to serve him as warriors and workers and to pay tribute*. The Naaba protected his power by granting distant villages and lands to certain princes and descendants of the founder of the empire. The peoples of Burkina Faso share a rich religious heritage. In traditional agrarian religions, the spirit of the earth and the spirits of the ancestors are particularly important. These spirits make people follow customs and traditions, and they bring rain, fertility, and health to the community. The Spirit of Heaven also features prominently in local religions. The sky that made the world is responsible for rain, destiny and children's souls. Bush spirits rule the land outside the villages. They not only control the abundance of game and the wealth of the hunters, but also punish wrongdoers. These spirits appear in the form of animals - mostly reptilians - who serve the line elders. Lineage members are not allowed to kill or eat these animals because they could help the elders find water or lead them to victory over enemies. The spirits inhabit prominent places in nature such as hills, rocks, lakes, and caves. Diviners play an important role in traditional beliefs. They give people advice on what to do in everyday life and they teach them to use the forces of nature for their own ends. However, witchcraft or other types of magic that cause damage or annoyance are generally avoided. Although many people still follow traditional religious beliefs and practices, some of the people of Burkina Faso have embraced Christianity, and about half of the country's population is Muslim. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Labor Unions and Trade Associations.)

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Burundi

Burton, Sir Richard Francis 1821–1890 British explorer

* diplomatically involved in managing relations with other nations

ir Richard Francis Burton made four trips to Africa in the mid-19th century. Although he failed in his mission to locate the source of a branch of the Nile, he contributed significantly to European knowledge of African geography. Born in Torquay, England and raised in France and Italy, Burton served in the British Army in India. He spoke many languages, including Arabic, and became famous for disguising himself as a Muslim and entering the holy city of Mecca in Arabia. In 1854–1855, an expedition with fellow explorer John Hanning Speke to eastern Ethiopia and modern-day SOMALIA ended in disaster when Somalis wounded both men. In 1857, the two explorers again headed west from the East African coast to seek the source of the White Nile. Their friendship ended with disagreements over whether the river originated in Lake Victoria. Burton's assertion that this was not the case was later proven wrong. Burton's later career included three years of diplomatic* service in West Africa, studying local customs. His books on life in West Africa, along with the popular narratives of his earlier explorations, shaped the popular image of Africa. Burton died in Trieste, northeastern Italy. (See also Travel and Explore.)

Burundi, a small, densely populated country in the heart of east-central Africa, is one of the poorest countries in the world. It has also experienced some of the most severe and violent conflicts on the African continent. These conflicts are rooted in a power struggle between the country's two main ethnic groups, the Tutsi and the Hutu.

Burundi Burundi

GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY * Escarpment land or rocks

long, cliff-like ridge of

* Tropical or subtropical savanna grasslands with scattered trees and drought tolerant undergrowth * Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption * Subsistence farming, enough food to live on * Cassava tapioca

raise

only

starchy root crop; source from

* Sorghum family of tropical grasses used for food

Located south of the equator, Burundi is a country of rolling hills and lakes. There are spectacular steep slopes* in the north-east and savannas* in the south-west. The capital, Bujumbura, sits on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, which forms the country's southwestern border. Much of Burundi's original forest has been cleared, with the forests remaining mainly on the upper mountain slopes. Burundi's wildlife includes antelope, baboons and warthogs, but poaching - illegal hunting - has severely affected many species, including the elephant. Although Burundi is close to the equator, its high altitude ensures a mild climate all year round. Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year, with the exception of a dry season from May to August. Although soil erosion is a serious problem in hilly areas, the fertile soil in the larger river valleys provides good conditions for agriculture. Burundi's economy is mainly based on agriculture. The main commercial crops are coffee, cotton and tea. Coffee, the leading source of revenue*, accounts for the bulk of the country's export earnings. Most of the agriculture, however, consists of subsistence farming* with food crops such as beans, corn, cassava* and sorghum*. Livestock farming such as cattle, sheep and goats is also important.

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Burundi

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BURUNDI

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Burundi has very little industry or mining, and its poor transportation system limits industrial growth. The country's few industries are concentrated in Bujumbura and consist of consumer goods manufacturing and food processing. In addition, political instability has hurt the economy in recent years, leaving Burundi heavily dependent on foreign aid to meet its basic needs.

PEOPLES AND CULTURE The people of Burundi belong to three main ethnic groups – the Hutu, the Tutsi and the Twa. The majority of the people are Hutu and the

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Tutsi Culture in Burundi One of the two main ethnic groups in Burundi, the Tutsi have a rich artistic heritage. Traditional Tutsi ceremonies included graceful dances accompanied by pulsing rhythmic music. The dancers wore elaborate costumes decorated with animal skins and hair. The Tutsi were also known for their singing, which was often used to tell a story. A Tutsi song identifies warriors on their way to battle; Another describes the actions of hounds tracking game. * hierarchical organization of a group into higher and lower levels * clan group of people descended from a common ancestor

Tutsi make up about 20 percent of the population. The Twa, a pygmy people and indigenous people to the region, now make up less than 1 percent of the population. The people of Burundi speak three main languages: Rundi, French and Swahili. Rundi, the most widespread, is a Bantu language. People engaged in commerce often use Swahili. A large percentage of the population is Christian, mostly Roman Catholic. However, many people – including some Christians – also practice traditional African religions. Although Burundi has one of the highest population densities in Africa - the number of people living per square mile - few people live in urban areas or even in villages. Most live in small family settlements scattered across the country. In these remote settlements, family members build clusters of beehive-shaped huts. Burundi's society is composed of a hierarchy* of ranks based on ethnic or clan* identity. Traditionally, the Twa have occupied the lowest level. The highest social rank consisted of princely Tutsi families descended from the rulers of the ancient kingdoms that occupied the region. Traditionally, the Hutu were farmers, while the mostly large Tutsi raised cattle. A long history of distrust and fear between Hutu and Tutsi has led to regular fighting between the two groups. In the 1970s, ethnic conflict between Hutu and Tutsi erupted in a civil war that claimed hundreds of thousands of lives.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

* Organization of the League of Nations for the Promotion of World Peace and Security; it functioned from 1920 to 1946

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

* insurrection violent rebellion against authority; rebellion

The Hutu began immigrating to Burundi around 1000 AD; the Tutsi arrived about 400 years later. Despite being outnumbered by the Hutu, the Tutsi eventually gained dominance in the region and established a number of kingdoms. Around 1800 the entire region was ruled by a Tutsi king. In 1890 Burundi and its neighbor RWANDA became part of the German East Africa colony. In 1919, after Germany's defeat in World War I, the League of Nations* placed the region under Belgian rule. Belgian control of what later became known as Rwanda-Urundi lasted until 1962, when the region became the two independent nations of Rwanda and Burundi. ethnic conflict. After gaining independence on July 1, 1962, Burundi became a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Tutsi Mwami, or king. Hostilities between Hutu and Tutsi increased over the next few years, and fighting broke out on several occasions. In October 1965, a group of Hutu army officers attempted to overthrow the monarchy. The attempt failed and the Tutsi retaliated by executing many Hutu - political leaders, intellectuals and ordinary citizens. A military coup* in November 1966 ended the monarchy and led to the establishment of a republic. Michel Micombero, a Tutsi, became president of the new government. At this point, Burundian politics revolved more around internal struggles within the Tutsi minority. In the background, however, there was a threat of an uprising* by the Hutu majority.

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Burundi

Since independence, ethnic conflicts between Burundi's Hutu and Tutsi have regularly erupted in episodes of violence. In this photo, a group of Hutus are returning to their homes after a Tutsi attack.

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In 1972, violence erupted in Burundi as the Hutu rebelled against Tutsi oppression. The uprising triggered massive Tutsi attacks against the Hutu. At least 100,000 Hutu were killed between April and September. The killings and repression fueled hatred between the two groups. The attack marked an important point in the Hutu-Tutsi conflict as it really brought the Hutu together because they were suffering at the hands of the Tutsi. Conflicts within the Tutsi led to the overthrow of Michel Micombero in a military coup in 1976 and the rise to power of another Tutsi, Jean-Baptiste Bagaza. Bagaza was overthrown in another military coup led by Pierre Buyoya in 1987. Under Buyoya, Burundi was ruled by a military

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Burundi

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* Junta group that runs a government, usually after seizing power by force

1890 Burundi becomes part of German East Africa.

1919 The country is placed under Belgian rule.

1962 Burundi becomes an independent monarchy.

1966 The military ends the monarchy.

1972 Hutu rebellion against Tutsi, followed by anti-Hutu violence.

1988 Ethnic violence erupts again.

1992 President Ndadaye assassinated; Civil war breaks out and many Hutu flee the country.

Junta*. In 1988, ethnic hostilities between Hutu and Tutsi broke out again, causing many Hutu to flee the country. attempts at reform. Attempts by President Buyoya to reform the government and reduce ethnic divisions led to the adoption of a new constitution in 1992. The document banned political organizations based on ethnic identity and required political parties to include representatives of both Hutu and Tutsi. Under this new constitution, Burundi held its first free democratic elections in 1993. Hutu leader Melchior Ndadaye won the presidency in a landslide victory, ending nearly 30 years of Tutsi control. Ndadaye freed many political prisoners and established an administration that was two-thirds Hutu and one-third Tutsi. However, this attempt at a two-party government came to a dramatic end in October 1993 when Ndadaye was assassinated in a Tutsi-led military coup. News of Ndadaye's assassination outraged the Hutu, who responded by killing tens of thousands of innocent Tutsi civilians. The 1993 wave of violence was followed by attacks on the Hutu, led by the predominantly Tutsi army, which caused nearly 800,000 Hutu to flee to neighboring countries. When moderate leader Cyprien Ntaryamira became president in January 1994, an uneasy calm returned to Burundi. However, his tenure ended abruptly the following April when the plane he and Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana were traveling in crashed under suspicious circumstances. The announcement of Ntaryamira's death had little impact in Burundi. In Rwanda, on the other hand, the death of President Habyarimana had dramatic repercussions. Like Burundi, Rwanda has a Hutu and Tutsi population divided by ethnic rivalries. Suspicions of President Habyarimana's crash and death fell on Tutsi groups, sparking a wave of violence against Rwandan Tutsi. Outlook for the future. Events in Rwanda increased ethnic tensions in Burundi. Tens of thousands of Hutu and Tutsi refugees fled Rwanda and sought refuge in Burundi. The presence of these refugees bore the seeds of further conflict. After the death of President Ntaryamira, Hutu leader Sylvestre Ntibantuganya became acting President of Burundi. Days later, Tutsi soldiers began attacking Hutu, and a group of Tutsi attempted to stage a military coup. The coup failed and the outbreaks of violence continued. Growing international concern over Burundi prompted the United Nations to send advisers to study the situation in 1995. In 1996, UN reports of civil wars in various parts of Burundi prompted the United States and many European nations to suspend foreign aid to the country. The threat of violence in Burundi remains high and the country faces ongoing political and economic problems. A military coup in 1996 brought President Pierre Buyoya back to power, and he struggled to solve his country's many problems. Meanwhile, fighting continues in many parts of Burundi. It remains to be seen whether the nation will be able to resolve its problems in the near future. (See also

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Burundi Republic of Burundi

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: coffee, cotton, tea, cassava, sorghum, corn, livestock, hides Manufacturing: light consumer goods, food processing Mining: nickel, uranium, vanadium, phosphates

POPULATION: 6,054,714 (2000 est. population) AREA: 10,747 square miles. (27,834 km²)

GOVERNMENT: Independence from Belgium, 1962. Transitional arrangement. President elected by universal suffrage. Legislative: Assemblée Nationale (elected by universal suffrage)

LANGUAGES: Rundi, French (both official); Swahili NATIONAL CURRENCY: Burundian franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Christian 67%, traditional 32%, Muslim 1% CITIES: Bujumbura (capital), 300,000 (1994 est.); Gitega, Ngozi, Kayanza, Mwaro Annual rainfall ranges from 1,194 mm (47 in) on the plateaus to 762 mm (30 in) in lower areas

HEAD OF STATE SINCE 1976: 1976–1987 President Jean-Baptiste Bagaza 1987–1993 President Pierre Buyoya 1993 President Melchior Ndadaye 1993–1994 Transitional government; President Cyprien Ntaryamira 1994-1996 President Sylvestre Ntitanganya 1996- President Major Pierre Buyoya FORCES: 40,000 EDUCATION: Compulsory for ages 7-13; Literacy rate 35%

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $740

Agriculture, Bantu Peoples, Class Structure and Caste, Colonialism in Africa, Ethnic Groups and Identity, Genocide and Violence, Refugees, Tribalism, United Nations in Africa.)

BUSHMEN

Busia, Kofi A. 1913–1978 Prime Minister of Ghana

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More Khoisan.

African nobleman Kofi A. Busia was elected Prime Minister of GHANA in 1969 and briefly led his country. In addition to politics, Busia focused on philosophy and economics. He received his PhD from Oxford University in England and wrote many books including Africa in Search of Democracy (1967). In 1942, Busia was appointed one of the first African district commissioners under British colonial rule. In 1951 he continued his political activities as a member of the colonial Legislative Assembly. As Ghana neared independence in 1956, Busia became the leader of the National Liberation Movement (NLM). The party was formed to oppose the government of Prime Minister Kwame NKRUMAH. After Nkrumah cracked down on political opponents, Busia fled Africa fearing arrest. He spent the next few years in the Netherlands and Great Britain.

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In 1966 Cabinda overthrew military leaders Nkrumah and Busia returned to Ghana as an adviser to the new government. Three years later he became prime minister. His government was marred by conflicts with workers and the military, a flagging economy, and the exile of non-Ghanaian Africans from the country. Overthrown by the military in 1972, Prime Minister Busia left Ghana again and spent the rest of his life in Britain.

Cabinda Cabinda

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

Abinda, a province of the country of ANGOLA, is separated from Angola by a narrow strip of land of CONGO (KINSHASA). Although small (about 2,800 square miles), Cabinda has played a prominent role in the region's economy and politics for many years - particularly because of its valuable oil fields. Europeans visited the region in the 15th century to trade in copper, ivory and slaves. As European powers carved up Africa into colonial empires, the Portuguese gained control of Cabinda. To keep a close eye on Separatist groups within the local population, Portugal made the port town of Cabinda the district capital of northern Angola. Portuguese companies exported Cabinda's riches, including timber, cocoa, palm products, and other resources. Oil was discovered off the coast in the 1960s, making Cabinda one of Angola's most important resources. When Angola gained independence in 1975, a civil war began between the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Both groups hoped to eventually control Angola and neither wanted to lose the precious Cabinda. While the rest of Angola's economy suffered during the war, government forces protected Cabinda's oil operations and oil production continued. At the same time, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), founded in the 1960s, waged a guerrilla war* for Cabindan's independence. It sometimes fought from bases in neighboring countries. Both the MPLA and UNITA attacked FLEC at some point. In the mid-1990s, the MPLA and UNITA officially ended their conflict, but the FLEC continues to fight. Although many Cabindans support independence, FLEC is too divided by internal rivalries to achieve that goal. However, it seems likely that if a free vote were to take place, a majority of the population would vote for some form of independence. It is also difficult to determine the size of the Cabinda population due to the area's instability in the late 20th century and the comings and goings of refugees. It has been variously estimated at 100,000 and 200,000. Meanwhile, Cabinda's rich resources continue to make the region of vital importance to Angola. The Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, operated by the American company Chevron, produces more than half of Angola's oil. Natural gas deposits have also been found in the area. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

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Cabral, Amilcar Lopes

Cabral, Cabral, Amílcar Amílcar Lopes Lopes 1924–1973 Political and revolutionary activist * Suppressive Authority

unjust or cruel exercise of

Cairo *medieval refers to the Middle Ages in western Europe, generally believed to be from 500 to 1500 AD

* Sect

religious group

* Mosque

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Muslim place of worship

Born in the Portuguese colony of GUINEA (later GUINEA-BISSAU), Amílcar Lopes Cabral went to Portugal to study. After graduating from the University of Lisbon, he returned home as a revolutionary leader and carried out Guinea-Bissau's independence. Cabral believed that people who resisted oppression* should take action and advocate for social reform. He has earned respect at home and abroad for his political convictions. In 1956 he founded and led an underground movement against Portuguese rule. Over time, the movement achieved military and political victories, but Cabral himself was assassinated by Portuguese agents in 1973. Guinea-Bissau gained independence the following year, and Cabral's brother became the new country's first president.

Airo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in Africa. The city's strategic location on the Nile has made it a defensive stronghold for Egypt for almost 1,500 years. During the Middle Ages*, Cairo was one of the busiest commercial and educational centers in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Today, the city remains a vibrant center of Islamic culture and politics. Story. Before the founding of Cairo, other large cities had sprung up and disappeared in the area. Directly to the southwest was Memphis, ancient Egypt's first capital, founded around 3000 BC. by the pharaohs. To the northeast was Heliopolis, an important religious center around 2500 BC. Later it housed Greek schools where Plato and other famous philosophers studied. Modern Cairo began as a military camp. It was founded in AD 640 by Amr ibn al-As, an Arab leader who brought ISLAM to Egypt. Over the next 300 years, Arab rulers expanded and improved the city known as alFustat, which developed into an important river port. In 969, the Fatimids, an Islamic sect*, invaded the region and established the city of al-Qahirah (meaning “the victorious”) northeast of al-Fustat. Cairo is the Westernized version of al-Qahirah. The Fatimids expanded the city and built the mosque* and university called al-Azhar, one of the greatest centers of learning in the medieval world. The university still exists today. Al-Fustat remained the commercial center of the region for almost 200 years. However, in 1168 it was burned down by the Muslims to prevent it from falling into the hands of Christian invaders. The Muslim leader Saladin built a great empire with Cairo as its capital. In the Middle Ages, Cairo played an important role in the spice trade between Europe and Asia. By the 1340s the population had reached half a million. But beginning with the outbreak of the Black Death in 1348, Cairo was plagued by a series of plagues and other calamities. A sea voyage that took place shortly before 1500 changed the fate of the country. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached Asia by sailing around the southern tip of Africa, opening a new route to the countries that grew spices and eliminating Cairo's key role in that trade. Then, after the Turks conquered Egypt in 1517, Cairo lost its place as the

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Cairo

Islam has been a big part of Cairo's culture since the 600s. Minarets rising from the city's many mosques dot the skyline.

Capital of a great empire. The city fell into disrepair. By 1800 the population had shrunk by almost half. In the mid-18th century, the construction of the nearby SUEZ CANAL and a railway between Cairo and ALEXANDRIA brought immigration and new growth to Cairo. After 1850, the city developed along European lines, inspired by improvements in Paris. Grand boulevards were laid out for motorized vehicle traffic, new bridges were built, and utilities such as gas, electricity, water, and telephones were provided. New public transport services allowed suburbs to proliferate outside of Cairo, and by the end of World War II the city was home to more than 2 million people. Since then, Cairo has grown tremendously, with new suburbs extending into the surrounding desert and Nile Delta. Modern Cairo. Today, Cairo has almost 12 million inhabitants, which means that about one in five Egyptians lives in the city. However, Cairo's rapid growth has led to serious problems of pollution and unemployment in the region. Although mostly Muslims, the

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Cairo

See Color Plate 14, Vol. 4.

calendar and time

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern

* native

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resident in a specific place

The city contains the largest concentration of Coptic Christians in the world. Cairo is the center of Egyptian government, industry, finance and culture. It contains most of Egypt's banks and businesses and a good portion of its leisure and entertainment facilities. Cairo's vibrant film and music industries attract the Arab world's most popular entertainers. The city also boasts more than 20 museums, various performing arts organizations and several well-known universities that attract students from many Arab countries. (See also Cities and Urbanization, Copts.)

n African cities, many people use the western clock and calendar system for official and business purposes. They divide the day into 24 hours and the year into 12 months based on the earth's movement around the sun. As in the West, a general dating system is used to provide a common framework for past events in many places. Traditionally, however, African societies have not used formal, structured methods to measure, count, or keep track of hours and months. Instead, they determined time through the rhythms of daily life and through the events of the common history of a community or people. This approach still shapes the notion of time in rural and traditional African cultures. months, seasons and years. The people of North Africa, where Islam is the dominant religion, use the Muslim calendar, which has 12 months in the year. However, unlike the Western calendar, the Muslim months are based on the 29.5-day cycle of the moon phases. Each month begins on or near the date of the new moon and is either 29 or 30 days long. The Muslim year totals either 354 or 355 days - 10 or 11 days shorter than the western year, which is based on the solar cycle. This difference means that the Muslim months do not occur at the same time of year every year. Over a period of 32.5 Western years, each Muslim month goes through the cycle of the seasons. In sub-Saharan Africa*, some groups do not identify and name months. People in these cultures know the phases of the moon and the annual cycle of the seasons. But instead of using a calendar to plan their work, they carry out their activities - hunting, farming, rituals* - in accordance with regular events they observe in nature. Such events include the positions of the stars and the sun, the flowering of plants, the rise and fall of rivers, and seasonal changes in temperature, precipitation, and wind. Other indigenous* groups - particularly those focused on agriculture - have systems of named months with calendars based on the lunar cycle. Like the months of the Muslim calendar, the months of a traditional African lunar calendar do not fall in the same season every year. For this reason, the timing of agricultural activities cannot be based on a lunar calendar. Even in calendar-keeping societies, agriculture is not viewed in terms of months or dates, but as a sequence of

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Camara Laye

* Timeline

Sequence

Tasks like tilling the soil, planting, weeding, scaring away birds and harvesting. Each task is executed when certain conditions are met. Some groups correct the imbalance between the lunar calendar and the solar cycle by adding an extra month to the calendar or repeating a month when the calendar differs significantly from the solar year. For the most part, however, traditional African calendars are used primarily for timing social and ritual activities. Even if a monthly calendar exists, the year does not necessarily begin in a specific month. A group may observe separate agricultural, ritual, and legal years beginning in different months. The year usually begins at the time of year most important to a particular society, e.g. B. in the rainy season. The people of sub-Saharan Africa have not developed date systems that are widely applied and based on historical events. However, some states in West Africa and East Africa have kept royal genealogies, or lists, of their kings. Scholars and historians once believed that such lists provided an accurate chronology* for these societies. But recently they have realized that many factors make king lists inaccurate. List makers sometimes added early names to make their societies appear older. They also dropped the names of rulers who were later overthrown, or adjusted the lists to support the current ruler's claim to the throne. Although valuable as cultural documents, king lists are not reliable as chronologies. hours and days. Some traditional African societies divide each month in half - before and after the full moon - and count the days within each half. More important than counting days, however, is breaking them down into weeks. Most groups define a week according to the cycle of local market days. The week is as long as the interval between the start of one market cycle and the next, usually around five days. The African day begins at dawn or sunrise, not in the middle of the night as in the western system. Indigenous groups do not divide the day into fixed hours, minutes, or seconds. Instead, they organize the day according to the changing position of the sun and the associated social activities. A typical daily sequence might be: first light, sunrise, breakfast, going to the fields, noon, cattle back, sunset, dinner and sleep, followed by first light again. Night is not usually divided into any periods, and a 24-hour period can be referred to as "day," "night," or "sleep."

Camara Laye 1928–1980 Guinean Author

Amara Laye is one of Africa's best-known and most respected francophone (French-speaking) authors. His first novel L'enfant noir (The Black Child) is also one of his most popular. Written in 1953, the book tells of Camara's childhood in the city of Kouroussa, GUINEA. On the one hand, it is a personal account of the author's Mande culture, including a description of secret initiation rites. On the other hand, it is the story of an African exiled to France who remembers the culture he had to leave.

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Camara Laye

* epic long poem about legendary or historical heroes, written in a grand style * medieval refers to the Middle Ages in Western Europe, commonly believed to range from AD 500 to 1500

Cameroon

Dramouss, another work based on Camara's personal experience, deals with his disappointment with President Sékou TOURÉ's political regime. The cruelty of the Guinean ruler forced Camara into exile in SENEGAL. Camara's last book, Le mâitre de la parole, is a retelling of the Mande epic* about the medieval* emperor Sunjata. Camara wrote down and translated the story from the performance of a traditional storyteller. Another novel that appeared under Camara's name was Le Respect du Roi (The Splendor of the King). Some people doubted that Camara was actually the author of the book, and shortly before his death he confirmed that the novel was written by someone else. Camara Laye died in Senegal in 1980. (See also Literature.)

he West African country of Cameroon stretches from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Chad inland. One of Africa's most culturally diverse nations, Cameroon encompasses hundreds of different ethnic groups. Long a hub for merchants from the Middle East and Europe, it was controlled by various European powers before becoming independent in the 1960s.

GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY * equatorial refers to the region around the equator * Mangrove tree, found in coastal areas and growing in dense clumps

Two traditions The colonial powers France and Great Britain have left very different legacies in Cameroon - in areas such as language, educational institutions and political systems. When Cameroon gained independence, these different traditions became a source of conflict. To smooth out some of the differences between English and French speakers, Cameroon declared itself bilingual and made both languages official. In order to symbolize the unity of the country, the name of the Federal Republic of Cameroon - which indicates a federation of individual parts - was changed to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.

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Cameroon's Atlantic coast is swampy and densely forested. Mount Cameroon, an active volcano and West Africa's highest peak, towers over the rest of the coast. Further inland, the country splits into two main regions: the western highlands and the southern plateau. landforms. The mountains of the western highlands of Cameroon serve as a natural border with NIGERIA. The mountains contain various mineral deposits and are covered with rich volcanic soil. The western highlands merge into the southern plateau also known as the Bamileke Grassfields. This area of rolling hills stretches eastward into the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC. Cameroon's capital, Yaoundé, is located in the center of the southern region. In northern Cameroon is the Benue Depression, a low-lying area around the valley of the Kebi River, surrounded on three sides by mountains. Beyond the mountains, the plain of Chad gradually slopes down to the shore of Lake Chad. Known for their rapids and waterfalls, Cameroon's many rivers are used for transportation and hydroelectric power generation. climate and vegetation. Cameroon's climate and vegetation vary depending on the terrain. Southern Cameroon has a warm and rainy equatorial* climate. Mangrove* swamps along the south coast eventually give way to dense rainforests, particularly in the southeast. The coast has a wet season that lasts from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. It rains more on the coast than inland, where the rainy season lasts only two or three months. Further north, the climate is hotter and drier, and vegetation changes from rainforest to wooded grasslands. The far north experiences desert-like conditions. Grass and shrubs grow during the rainy season, but the region has little vegetation during the rest of the year.

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Kamerun Tschadsee

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Business. Cameroon's strong agricultural base produces enough food for its growing population and a surplus for export. The main agricultural exports are cocoa, coffee and timber. Cameroon's industry produces both oil and tin, and the country also contains uranium and iron ore deposits. In addition, the peoples of the southern plateau produce items such as wood carvings to sell to markets outside. The transport infrastructure* is relatively well developed, good roads connect most of the cities with the surrounding area. These roads allow many people of the densely populated southern plateau to leave the area to work and send money back to family members. Despite its natural resources, Cameroon's economy was in crisis in the 1990s due to political instability and poor investment of agricultural and industrial profits.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

Several powerful kingdoms existed in Cameroon before the arrival of Europeans in the late 14th century. During the colonial period that began in the late 19th century, the region was controlled by three different European powers: Germany, Great Britain and France. Modern Cameroon reflects the legacy of these diverse political influences.

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Cameroon

North Cameroon has long been a stronghold of Fulani culture. These Fulani horsemen and their festively decorated horses parade through the northern town of Rey Bouba.

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Precolonial and Colonial History. People of Cameroon's early societies crossed the Sahara to trade with Egypt and other civilizations along the Mediterranean Sea. Separate kingdoms gradually arose around Lake Chad and in the eastern grasslands. Trade, migration and expansion brought the region's kingdoms into contact with one another. In the 15th century, the kingdoms of Bamileke and Bamum merged into a confederation. Another early kingdom, Mandara, was conquered by the BORNU Empire in the 15th century. Many of the first Europeans in Cameroon were merchants. They began exporting ivory and slaves from the area. At the end of the 19th century, several European powers had their sights set on Cameroon. In 1884, the Germans established the Protectorate of Cameroon in the region, but the British and French took over the colony during World War I. After the war, Britain and France divided the colony and ruled it under the authority of the League of Nations, an organization created to promote international security. Britain controlled the northwestern part of the country known as British Cameroon and incorporated it into the colony of Nigeria. However, Britain did little to develop the area. In fact, British rule is seen as a time of neglect, and many Cameroonians were angry at both British colonial leaders and Nigerians. France has invested much more

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Cameroon Republic of Cameroon

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $2,000 MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, livestock, timber Manufacturing: textiles, timber, food and beverage processing Mining: petroleum, bauxite, iron ore

POPULATION: 15,421,937 (2000 est. population) AREA: 183,568 square miles. (475,400 km²) LANGUAGES: French, English (official); Bantu dialects (24) NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Traditional 51%, Christian 33%, Muslim 16% CITIES: Yaoundé (capital) 1,119,000 (1999 est.); Douala, Nkongsamba, Maroua, Bafoussam, Foumban, Garoua, Limbe, Bamenda, Kumba ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies by region from 600 mm (23 in) in the far north to 10,000 mm (390 in) along the coast

GOVERNMENT: German colony until 1916, then divided between France and England by the League of Nations. In 1960, the French part declared independence. In 1961, the English part voted for partition, with part aligning with Nigeria and the rest aligning with Cameroon. multi-party democracy; President and Assemblée Nationale elected by universal suffrage. HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1960-1982 President Ahmadou Ahidjo 1982- President Paul Biya ARMED FORCES: 13,100 (est. 1998) EDUCATION: Compulsory for 6-11 year olds; Literacy rate 63%

Time and money in French Cameroon, and a large number of French citizens settled there. At the time of independence, this part of the country was wealthier, more educated and had a much stronger infrastructure than the British part. In 1958, pressure for more political freedom led France to declare Cameroon a republic with limited self-government. Two years later the republic became independent. In 1961, the northern part of British Cameroon voted to join Nigeria; the southern part became part of the Federal Republic of Cameroon.

* capitalist economic system in which companies are privately owned and operated and free markets coordinate most economic activities

From colony to dictatorship. The first president of the new republic, Ahmadou Ahidjo, promised to maintain close ties with France and build an economy based on capitalism*. One of Ahidjo's main goals was to unite the English and French-speaking parts of the country. He hoped to get Cameroonians to identify with the nation rather than their own ethnic groups. To achieve his goals, Ahidjo merged the country's political parties into a single party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU). The President ruled as an absolute dictator, power concentrated in his hands and exercised through the CNU. Problems soon arose in stabilizing the country's economy. In the early years of independence, Cameroon was heavily dependent on foreign trade and produced few goods for its own people. With the discovery of oil in 1976, petroleum became Cameroon's main source of income. Much of that money, however, was spent on poorly planned projects. In 1982, Ahidjo resigned and his prime minister, Paul Biya, took over the presidency. However, Ahidjo tried to retain control of the government.

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Cameroon 1884 Germany establishes the Protectorate of Cameroon.

1918 Britain and France gain control and divide the colony between themselves.

1960 French colony gains independence.

1961 division of the British colony; North joins Nigeria, South joins the Federal Republic of Cameroon.

1976 The discovery of oil boosts the economy.

1996 New constitution comes into effect.

* authoritarian in terms of strong leadership with unquestioned authority

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Harvesting behind the scenes, which led to a confrontation between the two men. Forces loyal to Ahidjo staged an uprising in 1984, but Biya defeated them and exiled Ahidjo. Up to this point, Biya had tried to make the country more democratic, but the uprising prompted him to take more authoritarian* measures. The people of Cameroon, who wanted more political freedom, opposed Biya's policies. They pressed the government for democratic reforms and held demonstrations in 1990. New political parties emerged and multiparty elections were held in 1992. Nonetheless, Biya and his party managed to retain their majority. Biya then arrested the leader of the main opposition party, sparking clashes between the government and its opponents. A new constitution drafted the following year gave the president and the central government very strong powers. Although general elections were held again in 1997, Biya's party was able to control the process under the new constitution. Many observers considered the elections unfair. Government. The President of Cameroon is directly elected by the people for a seven-year term and can serve a maximum of two terms. The President appoints the Prime Minister, the official head of government. The legislature consists of the Assemblée Nationale, whose members are directly elected, and the Senate. The people elect regional and local councils, but the President can suspend or dissolve these councils. In general, the President wields enormous political power and progress towards democracy has been slow.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES Cameroon is home to over 250 ethnic groups and more than 300 different languages. The ethnic groups correspond to the different geographical regions of the country. The south coast and inland forests are inhabited by a variety of farming and fishing communities, as well as nomadic pygmy groups. Most people in the inland forests live in small villages headed by a chief or council of elders. Christianity and formal education are more widespread near the coast, where contact with Europeans was earlier than in the inland villages. The Bamileke, a tightly organized group of chiefs, live on the grassy plateaus of Cameroon. These communities vary in size from a few people to tens of thousands. Although most Bamileke practice Christianity, the ruling families of one group, the Bamum, converted to Islam in the 19th century. Northern Cameroon was heavily influenced by a Muslim people known as the FULANI. Several dozen Fulani states were established in northern Cameroon in the 18th century, absorbing much of the non-Muslim population. As a result, Islam is widespread in the region. With the migration of many rural people to the cities of northern Cameroon, the influence of Fulani culture has continued to spread. (See also climate, colonialism in Africa, Islam in Africa, pygmies, slave trade.)

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Cape colored people

Canary Islands

Cape Colored People* apartheid policies of racial segregation in South Africa aimed to maintain white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race

he Canary Islands are a group of seven volcanic islands off the northwest coast of Africa. The westernmost islands are actually the peaks of mountains that rise from the sea floor to heights of several thousand feet above sea level. The eastern Canaries are much flatter. Gran Canaria and Tenerife are the two main islands. The Canary Islands have a fairly constant subtropical climate all year round, with temperatures between 20 and 30°C and little rainfall. The vegetation varies depending on the altitude. Crops suited to hot, dry conditions grow at lower elevations, while fruits and vegetables are grown at elevations above about 1,400 feet. Along with potatoes, tomatoes, oranges and grapes, bananas are the most important export fruit. However, since the 1960s, tourism has been the mainstay of the economy, and about 80 percent of the islanders are linked to tourism in some way. Apart from a large petroleum refinery in Santa Cruz, which processes crude oil, there is little industry on the islands. The Canary Islands were originally inhabited by a North African Berber people known as the Guanches. The King of Mauritania visited the islands around 40 BC. BC, a journey mentioned by the ancient Romans. The islands' name probably comes from the Latin word canis, meaning dog, because of the many large dogs that can be found there. European sailors first arrived in the 12th century and Spanish settlers took over the islands in the 14th century. For hundreds of years, the Canary Islands served as an important port on Spain's transatlantic route to the Americas. Christopher Columbus stopped at the islands for supplies on each of his westward voyages across the Atlantic. The Canary Islands were a Spanish province until 1927 when rivalry between the main islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife resulted in Spain splitting them into two separate provinces. In 1982 the entire archipelago became a self-governing community that elected its own representatives to the Spanish Parliament and Senate. Most of the approximately 1.5 million inhabitants of the islands are descended from the natives and the Spanish conquerors. The two largest cities are Las Palmas and Santa Cruz. The Canary Islands speak Spanish and the local culture is largely Catholic. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

ape Colored People are the multiracial population of various cities in the Cape Province, SOUTH AFRICA. They are descendants of Dutch, British and Kxoe (various non-Bantu speaking groups of southern Africa), as well as slaves brought from Madagascar and East Asia. Until the late 1950s, when apartheid* policies were introduced in South Africa, most Cape Colored lived in cities like CAPE TOWN or Port Elizabeth. In the 1970s they were sent to undeveloped areas outside of the cities and their homes were given to white families. Most of its 2 million members belong to Dutch Protestant churches, but a small minority are Muslim. The Cape Colored People speak a form of Dutch called Afrikaans, but they maintain a cultural identity separate from both whites and blacks. Politically, they have supported the white-led National Party rather than the black-led African National Congress. (See also apartheid.)

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Cape Town

Cape Cape Town City

See Color Plate 15, Vol. 4.

* Shantytown Poor, run-down part of a town, often inhabited by immigrants

Cape Verde * Agriculture

suitable for the production of plants

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

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Located approximately 30 miles north of the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Town is the oldest city in SOUTH AFRICA. With its many gardens, parks, beaches, historic buildings and mountains, it is considered one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Cape Town (known as Kaapstad in Afrikaans) was founded in 1652 as a supply station for Dutch ships sailing between Europe and Asia. The Dutch brought slaves from Asia and Madagascar. French and Dutch colonists later settled there. The British conquered the city in 1806 and abolished slavery, causing many Dutch settlers to leave Cape Town. These settlers moved north in the 1830s and eventually formed the AFRICAN REPUBLICS. In the late 19th century, the discovery of diamonds and gold in the northern Transvaal led to the founding of JOHANNESBURG. The new city soon replaced Cape Town as the leading city in southern Africa. However, Cape Town remained the region's most important port until the 1980s. It still boasts one of the largest dry docks in the world and provides offshore services for large tankers. Cape Town has long been known for its diverse ethnic population. Before South Africa introduced its APARTHEID policy in 1948, the city was largely integrated. Thereafter, thousands of CAPE COLORED PEOPLE - mixed-race descendants of European, KHOISAN and Asian ancestors - were expelled from Cape Town and forced to settle in undeveloped areas outside the city. As a result, many thousands of blacks were hired from other parts of South Africa to replace them as labourers. One of the worst of these areas, Crossroads, grew into a shantytown* of 70,000 people. Since the end of apartheid in the 1990s, Cape Town has once again developed into an extremely diverse city. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

The nation of Cape Verde (also known as Cabo Verde) is made up of 15 islands lying approximately 400 miles off the coast of SENEGAL. Although the name means "Green Cape", the islands actually have a hot, dry climate and very little arable land*. The capital Praia is located on the island of Santiago. Before its discovery by the Portuguese in 1460, Cape Verde was uninhabited. Portugal used the islands as a supply base for slave ships making the voyage from Africa to the Americas. The islands eventually became home to descendants of African slaves and European settlers from Portugal and the Mediterranean. The Portuguese often chose Cape Verdeans to administer their other African colonies; Many served abroad. In the late 1950s, Cape Verde joined GUINEA-BISSAU to achieve independence from Portugal. By 1975 both colonies had gained independence, and for the next five years a political party, the PAIGC, ruled both countries. Aristides Pereira became the first President of Cape Verde. The nation planned to unite with Guinea-Bissau, but a 1980* coup in Guinea-Bissau changed the course of events. The

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Cap Verde

* homogeneous

similar nature

Cape Verde contains ruins of many Portuguese forts, such as this one on the island of São Vicente. The Portuguese held Cape Verde for more than 500 years and had a lasting influence on the culture of the islands.

Cape Verde PAIGC changed its name to PAICV and declared itself the only legal party in the country. Cape Verde's government has been remarkably stable since independence, with only one unsuccessful coup attempt in 1977. In 1990, opposition political groups formed the Movement for Democracy (MPD) and pressured the government to end one-party rule. Multiparty elections were held in 1991 and MPD's António Mascarenhas Monteiro was elected President. The population of Cape Verde, around 400,000, is ethnically homogeneous*. Almost all people are Catholic and speak Crioulu, a Portuguese-African language. Culturally, the Cape Verdeans are closer to the Portuguese than to the West Africans. When there is little rainfall, the islands only produce enough food to meet about 10 percent of human needs. Drought and famine are common occurrences. Nevertheless, the majority of people work in agriculture. Much of the land is held by landowners who hire laborers to till their fields. Most farms are very small, typically less than three acres. For many years, large numbers of men have been migrating to find work abroad. Many have worked in the northern cod fisheries

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Cape Verde Atlantic and settled in southeastern New England. In fact, twice as many Cape Verdeans live outside the country than on the islands. These emigrants send home millions of dollars each year and contribute a large percentage of the country's overseas earnings. Because so many men have left the islands, women make up about 55 percent of the adult population, and women run almost 40 percent of all households. (See also colonialism in Africa, slave trade.)

CARNIVAL

Carthage

CATHOLICISM

Central African Federation

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See festivals and carnivals.

Arthage, a rich and powerful ancient city, once ruled the coast of North Africa. It stood on a peninsula in what is now TUNISIA, with a good port on each side. The city once controlled an empire that included North Africa, southern Spain, the Mediterranean islands of Sardinia and Corsica, and part of Sicily. The Phoenicians, a trading and seafaring people of the eastern Mediterranean, founded Carthage just before 814 BC. The city became rich through silver mining in North Africa and Spain. After gaining independence from Phenicia around 600 B.C. Carthage had several conflicts with the Greeks and then began around 410 BC. with the expansion of its territory. At the time, Rome was an emerging power, and the Carthaginians and Romans eventually feuded for control of Sicily. Between 264 and 146 BC The two powers engaged in a series of battles, which the Romans called the Punic (i.e., Phoenician) Wars. Rome eventually defeated and burned Carthage. Roman rulers later sent their citizens to colonize Carthage, and for several centuries after 29 B.C. The rebuilt city was an important center of Roman administration in North Africa. Around AD 700, Carthage was conquered by the Arabs as part of their conquest of North Africa. Many Roman structures were destroyed and the city was taken over by the Arab city of Tunis. (See also North Africa: History and Cultures.)

See Christianity in Africa.

he Central African Federation was formed in 1953 by uniting the British colonies of Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Politicians had two reasons for creating this federation. One was to gain access to the copper mines of Northern Rhodesia and to cheap labor in Nyasaland. The other was to calm the fears of white settlers who feared losing their power over the region.

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Central African Republic Although some of its founders hoped that the federation would lead to a multiracial society, black leaders rejected the idea from the start. In fact, the creation of the federation spurred the growth of black nationalist parties demanding independence. The region's white governments responded by attempting to crush black political parties and imprison their leaders. By 1960, however, black citizens had gained the right to vote, and over time political power was transferred to the black majority. The Central African Federation dissolved after Nyasaland (now MALAWI) and Northern Rhodesia (now ZIMBABWE) became independent in 1963. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

Central African Republic Central African Republic * Savannah Tropical or subtropical grassland with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

he Central African Republic lies on a wide, hilly plateau north of the equator and ranges from tropical rainforest in the south-west to savanna* forests in the north-east. Although most of the country receives ample rainfall, the extreme -- and very dry -- Northeast receives only about 0.2 inches annually. The Oubangui River, the main waterway, flows past the capital Bangui and along the country's southern border.

ECONOMY The Central African Republic has immense natural resources that could easily make it one of the richest countries in Africa. These resources include fertile land, abundant wildlife and timber, as well as expansive

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Five mineral occurrences in the Central African Republic. However, partly due to poor economic planning, the nation has not fully benefited from its rich resources. Despite its fertile land and reliable rainfall, the Central African Republic imports more food than it exports. About 80 percent of the inhabitants work in agriculture – mostly subsistence farming*. The most important export crops are cotton, coffee and tobacco. Central Africans also raise cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, except in areas where the tsetse fly – a disease-spreading insect – is found. Mining in Central African Republic is focused on gold and diamonds, with diamonds accounting for more than half of export earnings. The country also has rich reserves of copper, uranium, iron and other minerals. The timber industry processes hardwood from the tropical rain forests. Light industry includes food processing, brewing, textiles and footwear. Petroleum and consumer goods such as appliances and cars are imported. Because import costs exceed export earnings, the country is heavily indebted. The poor infrastructure* of the Central African Republic limits economic growth. The nation has no railroad and a critical lack of good roads. Less than 5 percent of existing roads are paved. In addition, the health system is bad. Although tropical diseases are widespread and epidemics are common, the country has only one major hospital in the city of Bangui.

Small but powerful The Central African Republic is made up of a number of small ethnic groups - such as the Yakoma, the Banziri and the Sango - who together make up less than 5 percent of the population. Despite their small size, these groups have enormous political influence. The ancestors of these peoples escaped from pre-colonial slave raids by migrating to islands in the Oubangui River. They were engaged in trade and were the first groups in the area to come into contact with Europeans. As a result, the river peoples developed ties to the colonial government. After independence, members of these groups continued to exercise political influence and held many government posts. * Subsistence farming enough food to live on

raise

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* Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works * indigenous

resident in a specific place

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See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

* resign

give in or give up

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

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HISTORY Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 19th century, the region of what is now Central African Republic was frequently raided by Islamic slave raiders from the north. Weakened by slave raids, the local population was unable to resist subsequent European merchants and settlers. In 1894, France established a colony called Oubangui-Chari in the region. The French forced the indigenous people to work for them, do military service and pay taxes. Farmers had to grow cash crops like cotton instead of the food crops they needed to survive. These policies, along with the French's cruel treatment of the local population, led to uprisings in 1909-1911 and again from 1928-1945. In 1960, France granted independence to the colony, which took the name Central African Republic. David Dacko, the country's first president, introduced a one-party system of government. In 1966, Dacko was overthrown by Captain Jean Bédel BOKASSA, who committed brutal acts against civilians and squandered much of the nation's wealth. In 1977, Bokassa proclaimed himself Emperor of the newly renamed Central African Empire. Two years later his already very unpopular government was in crisis. Riots broke out in Bangui. French troops took over the airport and capital and restored David Dacko to power. In 1981, Dacko was forced to cede power to General André Dieudonné Kolingba*, who suspended the constitution and assumed absolute authority over the government. After a failed military coup* the following year, Kolingba's rule became even tougher. He introduced

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Central African Republic Central African Republic

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: cotton, coffee, timber, tobacco, cassava, yams, millet, bananas, corn Processing: diamond cutting, textiles, sawmills, brewing, shoes, bicycle/motorcycle assembly Mining: diamonds, uranium, gold

POPULATION: 3,512,751 (2000 est. population) AREA: 240,324 square miles. (622,436 km²)

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1960. Multiparty republic; President elected by universal suffrage. Governing Bodies: Council of Ministers appointed by the President.

LANGUAGES: French (official); Sango, Arabic NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA Franc MAJOR RELIGIONS: Christian 50%, Traditional 24%, Muslim 15%, Other 11% CITIES: Bangui (capital), 524,000 (1999 est.); Baoli, Berbérati, Bambari, Bossagoa, Carnot ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 75 inches (1900 mm) in the south to 0.2 inches (50 mm) in the extreme northeast ECONOMY: GDP per capita: US$1,000

HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1959-1966 President David Dacko 1966-1979 Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa; President, 1967-1976; Kaiser, 1976-1979 1979-1981 President David Dacko 1981-1985 General André Kolingba; President, 1985-1993 1993- President Ange-Félix Patassé FORCES: 2,700 (est. 1998) EDUCATION: Compulsory for ages 6-14; Literacy rate 60%

a new constitution in 1986 and was elected for another six-year term as president. A poor economy forced Kolingba to cut spending. In addition, the government defaulted on paying civil servants' salaries. These difficulties and Kolingba's harsh policies led to riots and strikes. As a result of the 1993 elections, Ange-Félix Patassé became President. Since then, violence has erupted over the living conditions and lack of representation of the opposition parties. The Central African President continues to wield considerable power. As head of state and commander of the armed forces, the President appoints the Prime Minister and the members of the Council of Ministers. There is an elected legislature, but the president has the power to dissolve it and call new elections.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES Around 3.5 million people live in the Central African Republic, more than 40 percent of them are under 15 years old. Almost half of the residents live in cities and towns like Bangui. Of the eight major ethnic groups in Central African Republic, the Banda and the Baya (or Gbaya) are the largest. Other groups are the Mbum, the Zande and the Aka (or Bibinga), a pygmy people. Although the role of traditional leaders diminished during the era of French control, ethnic identity is still strong, particularly in the countryside. French is the official language and most of the population speaks Sango, a Bantu language.

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Central African Republic About half of Central Africans identify themselves as Christian, about 15 percent are Muslim and 24 percent practice traditional religions. In reality, however, these are little more than labels as most people maintain traditional beliefs and customs. (See also Agriculture, Bantu Peoples, Colonialism in Africa, Forests and Forestry, Public Health, Minerals and Mining, Pygmies, Slave Trade.)

Cetshwayo 1832–1884 Zulu king * Growing area

add a territory to an existing one

Chad

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

* archaeological refers to the study of past human cultures and societies, usually through the excavation of ruins

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Etshwayo Kampande was King of Zululand in south-eastern Africa from 1872 to 1879 and again from 1883 to 1884. Although he fought with great skill and courage to keep his kingdom free and undivided, his efforts were overwhelmed by British colonial troops. During his early reign, Cetshwayo developed ties with the British coastal colony of Natal. He hoped the British would support him in his border dispute with the Transvaal, Zululand's inland neighbor. However, in 1877 the British annexed the Transvaal* as part of a plan to establish a confederacy in southern Africa. Cetshwayo resisted and war broke out. Although the Zulu had the upper hand in the early stages of the fighting, the British won a decisive victory in the summer of 1879 and exiled Cetshwayo. Three years later, Cetshwayo visited Britain and convinced the British government that he was not the bellicose tyrant that British colonial officials were describing. He was restored to his throne in 1883, but local colonial officials supported Cetshwayo's enemies. civil war ensued. Cetshwayo was defeated and died a fugitive in a Natal-controlled part of Zululand.

had is a large landlocked country located south of LIBYA. Its history since independence has been marked by the civil war that has made Chad one of the poorest countries in the world. The country and the people. Chad lies on a vast plain divided into two very distinct regions. The northern part of the country is very dry, and in the far north the desert dominates. Most of the residents are nomadic Muslim groups like the FULANI, who raise cattle and camels. The south consists of relatively well-watered savanna* and contains the country's main rivers, the Shari and the Logone. About half of Chad's people live in the south, where most of the country's urban centers are located. The main source of income for Southerners is agriculture. Many of the people have converted to Christianity, but large numbers still adhere to traditional religious beliefs and practices. history and government. Rock paintings and other archaeological* evidence indicate that northern Chad was inhabited as early as 5000 AD

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Chad Republic of Chad

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: cotton, cattle, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, cassava, sugarcane, livestock, fish Manufacturing: livestock products and meat packaging, beer brewing, textiles, tobacco processing Mining: petroleum, uranium, soda, kaolin

POPULATION: 8,424,504 (2000 est. population) AREA: 495,792 square miles. (1,284,000 km²)

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1960. President elected by popular vote. Governing Bodies: Conseil Supérieur de la Transition with 57 members elected by a national conference and Council of State appointed by the President.

LANGUAGES: French, Arabic (official); Sara, Sango, other NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Muslim 50%, Traditional 25%, Christian 25% CITIES: N'Djamena (capital), 826,000 (1999 est.); Sarh (Fort Archambeault), Moundou, Bongor, Doba, Lai, Abéché, Koumra ANNUAL RAINFALL: Variable, from 900–1200 mm (35–47 in) in the subtropical zone to 200–500 mm (18–20 in). Sahara zone

HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1960-1975 President Francois-Ngarta Tombalbaye 1975-1979 General Felix Malloum, Chairman of the Supreme Military Council 1979- President Lol Mahamat Chaoua 1979-1982 President Goukouni Oueddei Déby FORCES: 25,400 (1998 est.) EDUCATION: 8-Compulsory 14 years; Literacy rate 48%

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $600

* Tribute paid by a smaller or weaker party to a more powerful one, often under threat of violence

See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

2000 BCE. The southern part of the country was only established around 500 BC. occupied. The BERBER peoples migrated to northern Chad around AD 700 and were pushed south by the expansion of the SAHARA DESERT into the border regions. Between 1000 and 1600, a series of kingdoms arose in central Chad. They gained power and wealth by conquering peoples of the region and exacting tribute* and controlling the southern part of the trade route through the Sahara. Much of their wealth came from capturing people from the south and selling them as slaves to Arab peoples in the north. The French colonized Chad in 1900, connecting the northern and southern parts for the first time. Under the French, the south received far more support than the north. Some Southerners held positions as teachers and businessmen, while others entered government service. After World War II, these groups played an important role in organizing the independence movement. Chad gained independence from France in 1960. The new country's first President, François-Ngarta TOMBALBAYE, banned all political parties except his own and installed an overwhelming number of Southerners in government. This led to protests and uprisings in central and northern Chad, where rebel groups took control in the early 1970s. A military coup* in 1975 was followed by a long civil war, during which time warlords ruled much of the country. Central government authority was finally restored in 1982, but its harsh rule led to renewed fighting. 1990 troops under

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Chad

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

General Idriss Déby's command defeated President Hissène Habré and Déby became President. In 1996, the country held the first multi-party presidential elections. Debbie won. However, Chad continues to be plagued by political violence and low-level guerrilla* warfare. According to Chad's constitution, the people elect the president, while a national conference elects the prime minister. The conference also elects the National Assembly, which oversees government and has the power to dismiss the prime minister. Business. Chad has few natural resources and many of these have been devastated by the ongoing war. Most Chadians are engaged in agriculture, with cotton accounting for about 60 percent of the country's export earnings. However, Chad's agriculture does not always produce enough to feed the people and the country has to import food in years when rainfall is insufficient. Chad has very little industrial development and relies heavily on foreign aid to support its budget. The discovery of oil in the late 1990s could help ease some of the country's economic woes.

Childhood and Adolescence * Socialization process through which children acquire the values of the community and learn to live according to its rules and customs

See Color Plate 7, Vol. 1.

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For most Africans in the past, growing up meant helping the family produce food, learning about community values, and gradually taking on new roles, privileges, and responsibilities. After about 1900, however, patterns of child upbringing and socialization* began to change. Three major influences for change were Western-style schooling, religious schooling in the Islamic nations of North Africa, and urban growth. However, many aspects of childhood and adolescence still clearly reflect African values and cultures. child life. African children are considered infants during lactation, typically between 12 and 24 months of age. Infants sleep next to their mothers at night and are the focus of mothers' parenting activities during the day. Mothers are quick to silence their crying babies, and infants generally don't develop the habit of crying out loud to express emotion. Mothers also use warnings and commands to protect their children and teach them to respect authority - an important lesson in most rural African communities. Overall, male and female infants are treated fairly equally. When mothers work outside the home, the infants are usually cared for by other women such as sisters, grandmothers, or other mothers within the extended family. An older sister—perhaps as young as five—may be responsible for carrying a child on her back. In some East African cultures, a woman carrying her younger brother on her back has a particularly close bond with him as an adult. Young children are expected to join their brothers and sisters and other related children in the home and eventually the neighborhood after infancy. They learn about their roles and responsibilities.

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Childhood and Adolescence African infants are often carried on the back of their mother or other relative who can tend to the baby's needs while doing other chores.

Capabilities. Children between the ages of two and four can help adults with household chores or with livestock. Older children look after younger siblings during the day and supervise their studies and work. During these early years, African children quickly acquire knowledge of the societies and environments in which they live. You will learn the customs that govern language, behavior and facial expressions; the relationships between men, women and children; and the routines of work, play, and ceremonies. During middle childhood, African children are given more responsibility. Many city children go to school between the ages of five and seven. In rural areas, children of this age may take on new responsibilities, such as carrying water jugs or babysitting. By the age of ten, African children are making a significant contribution to the ecological balance of their families.

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Creative solutions for childhood and adolescence With few manufactured goods available, children in Africa often invent their own toys. They make dolls, spinning tops, boats, flying objects and musical instruments. Children make toys from whatever is at hand, including branches, leaves, seeds, and leftover artificial materials. In the 1990s, the government of Zambia held a competition to make children's toys. Children produced an impressive array of inventions, including bicycle dolls, cars, trucks, and other vehicles. Most toys were made of tin, cloth, and wire. While admiring the children's creativity, some Zambians noticed new holes in their wire fences.

* exploit to profit from it; to use productively

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comic life. They help with farming or animal husbandry or do household chores so that the adults can work. Children who are good workers are assumed to show maturity and the valued values of respect and obedience. Between the ages of 5 and 12, some African children are sent by their families to live with wealthier or more privileged relatives. In exchange for working with relatives, the children should be given opportunities that are not available to them at home. For example, a rural family may send a child to live and work with an uncle in the city in the hope that the uncle will pay for a better education than the child could receive in the village. Sometimes such agreements benefit both sides, other times they turn young children to their advantage. As more Africans move to cities and as the divide between poor and wealthy family members widens, the temptation to exploit child labor grows*. From 12 to 20. Africans experience youth differently than teenagers in Western countries. In the West, adolescence leads to sexual and social maturity and decision about work—all at about the same time. The teenage years are viewed as a movement toward ultimate individuality and independence. In Africa, however, young people are not automatically considered independent adults when they reach the age of twenty. Even young people who have reached sexual maturity and engage in courtship cannot be considered adults. For Africans, adolescence is not a preparation for an independent life, but a promotion of the child's integration process into family and community structures. For African teenagers, personal choices can be limited. Young men and women are expected to mirror the roles and activities of their fathers and mothers or to accept the choices their families make for them. For example, a girl's father may arrange her marriage to a rich man she has never met. Also, African men and women tend to marry at very different ages. In most African cultures, it is common for girls to marry in their mid-teens, while men marry later and over a much wider age range. This range often extends from 18 to 30 years of age. African youth do not expect to live alone in the near future. Even when married and raising children of their own, young men and women are often part of the household of their husband's parents or other older relatives. However, as more and more young Africans live in cities, go to school and choose their own careers, their youth experience is approaching that of Western teenagers. Many African youth are shaped by rituals and customs that they have inherited from the past. In some groups, RITES OF INITIATION have traditionally marked the transition from childhood for both boys and girls. Such ceremonies in East Africa included surgeries on the young person's genitals. In West Africa boys and girls were placed in separate SECRET SOCIETY who lived apart from their families in the forest during their initiations. Although some of these practices are changing in modern Africa, in many places they are still woven into the fabric of community life. (See also Age and Aging, Education, Family, Gender Roles and Sexuality, Kinship, Marital Systems.)

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Chinese in Africa

Chilembwe, John 1871–1915 Malawian Nationalist

Chinese Chinese in Africa Africa

John Chilembwe was a church leader and opponent of European colonialism in Africa. His activities helped inspire the independence movement in his country MALAWI and nationalism in Africa. Trained in a Scottish Presbyterian mission in Malawi, Chilembwe broke with the Presbyterians in 1892 after meeting the Baptist missionary Joseph Booth. Booth took Chilembwe to the United States to attend a Black Baptist seminary in Lynchburg, Virginia. After returning to Malawi in 1900, Chilembwe established the Providence Industrial Mission. In addition, he criticized local European landowners for their treatment of African workers. In 1914, on the eve of World War I, Chilembwe published a letter entitled "The Voice of African Natives in the Present War". The letter was an early expression of African nationalism. Chilembwe also secretly organized an uprising against colonial rule. The authorities quickly put down the uprising and Chilembwe was killed. However, his reputation lived on. The memory of Chilembwe played an important role in Malawi's eventual independence and the collapse of colonial rule in Central Africa. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

From the late 17th to the early 19th centuries, Chinese traders and laborers traveled to South and East Africa to earn a living in the colonies established by Europeans. Large numbers of Chinese also moved to African islands such as MAURITIUS, REUNION and MADAGASCAR. A second wave of immigrants settled in Africa in the 1920s and 1930s, a time of great unrest in China. Although many Chinese were recruited as miners in South Africa's gold mines, others became involved in local business and forged social ties. Traders often lent money to local farmers and bought their crops, which they resold to European companies. Many of these early Chinese settlers gave birth to children with local women. They took these children into their own families but sometimes sent them to China for schooling. In recent years, the Chinese of SOUTH AFRICA have interacted more with their white neighbors than with black Africans. Many Chinese left African countries that gained independence in the 1960s and 1970s. Almost all African Chinese have their roots in the southern Chinese province of Guandong. They are descended from the original Chinese traders and not from Chinese workers brought to Africa by Europeans at the same time. The current Chinese population in Africa is around 70,000. Most of these people live in the south-east of the continent, where they mainly earn their living as grocers and restaurant owners. However, many younger Chinese are pursuing careers. A few have taken high government posts in countries such as ZIMBABWE and Mauritius. Since the 1950s, a trading community of Hong Kong Chinese has developed in West African countries such as GHANA and NIGERIA. Hundreds of Taiwanese businessmen have also moved to South Africa and surrounding countries to set up industrial plants. However, these entrepreneurs have been criticized for using local labor in their factories.

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Christianity in Africa

French Christianity dates back to very early times, and the Christianity that developed in Africa influenced the later growth of the religion in Europe. Ultimately, however, African Christianity developed a character all of its own, in which local traditions played a role. This religion had a profound impact on the social and political development of modern Africa. Today, membership in Christian churches in Africa is growing faster than anywhere else in the world.

EARLY AFRICAN CHRISTIANITY According to tradition, shortly after the founding of Christianity, the apostle Philip baptized a member of the royal court of ETHIOPIA. The early church historian Eusebius wrote that the apostle Matthew also spread the new faith in Ethiopia. This is how Christianity got to Africa before it reached Europe. See Color Plate 5, Vol. 1.

* monastic referring to monasteries, monks or nuns

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

* native

resident in a specific place

* Exploitation relationship where one side benefits at the expense of the other

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Roots of African Christianity. Christianity took root in North Africa very early on. Many important figures in the early church came from this region, including the church fathers Clement and Origen of ALEXANDRIA in Egypt and St Augustine of Hippo, a city in present-day ALGERIA. From 100 to 400 AD, Christianity spread across much of North Africa. Perhaps the most important force in this development was the monastic movement*, which began in Egypt and only later found its way to Europe. By the 300's Christianity had spread to Ethiopia and ERITREA and was centered in the city of AKSUM. Most of the region is still Christian today. From the 5th century, Christian kingdoms also flourished on the upper Nile in NUBIA (today's SUDAN). In the 1300s, the Nubians were conquered by Muslims from Egypt. spread of Christianity. Despite the early introduction of Christianity in Ethiopia and North Africa, the religion did not penetrate sub-Saharan Africa* for several hundred years. Christianity reached these regions during the great age of discovery over Europe. The Portuguese came to the Kingdom of CONGO in 1483. Eight years later, the King of Congo was baptized João I in honor of the Portuguese King João II. When Europeans established outposts along the coast of Africa in the 14th and 15th centuries, they brought with them missionaries who settled among indigenous* populations. At first, the introduction of Christianity was limited to Africans in coastal areas. With few exceptions, it was not until the 18th century that missionaries carried Christianity into the interior of the continent. Europeans viewed the conversion of Africans to Christianity as part of the colonization process. Their exploitation* of Africa's wealth was therefore accompanied by missionary activity. However, the main interest of most conquerors and traders who traveled to Africa was to enrich themselves. This goal often included the enslavement and even killing of the local population. Although Christian missionaries had come to Africa to save souls, they were often associated with the greed of their fellow Europeans. Because of this, many Africans opposed the missionaries and their message.

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Christianity in Africa

The stone church of St. George in Lalibela, Ethiopia is more than 700 years old. It was cut out of the surrounding rock in the shape of a cross.

After a while, rather than trying to force Christianity on Africans, Europeans looked for ways to use local institutions to attract converts. Missionaries tried to win over rulers and then use their authority to spread Christianity among the people. The long-term success of efforts to convert Africans to Christianity often depended on local political developments. The Christian nature of African kingdoms could prove short-lived if the ruling group is overthrown or challenged by a group opposed to Christianity. For many years there were no attempts to spread the faith by reaching out to ordinary Africans.

NEW DIRECTIONS IN AFRICAN CHRISTIANITY For centuries the Roman Catholic Church was the only active church in Africa. The Protestant outcry against the SLAVE TRADE in the late 18th and early 19th centuries marked a turning point for African Christianity. Significantly, the first Protestant missionaries to arrive in West Africa were ex-slaves who had aided the British in the American Revolutionary War. These black preachers and their followers changed the face of African Christianity.

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Christianity in Africa

There are many Christian denominations in Africa. The members of this church belong to the Assemblies of God, a Protestant group.

* Evangelist Person who preaches and spreads the Christian gospel

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Black evangelism. In 1792, more than a thousand former slaves accepted a British offer of free passage to Africa. Most of them had fought on the British side in the American Revolutionary War and were later resettled in Nova Scotia, Canada. There in today's SIERRA LEONE they founded the city of FREETOWN. Although not officially authorized as Protestant ministers, some of these former slaves became enthusiastic leaders in efforts to convert indigenous Africans to Christianity. In their sermons to Africans, they saw many similarities between the teachings of the Bible and traditional African beliefs and values. This connection between the Christian message and African culture was a major factor in the spread of Christianity across the continent in the 1800s and 1900s. The evangelical evangelists* who founded missionary movements in Africa around 1800 took a different course than the Catholics before them. They emphasized the important contributions that indigenous Africans could make to missionary work. In 1861, a missionary named Henry Venn took the bold step of placing nine churches in Sierra Leone under local control. He later appointed Samuel Ajayi CROWTHER, a former slave who had come to Freetown in 1822, as the first African bishop. From that point on, black preachers played a leading role in spreading Christianity across the continent. They used their familiarity with the people and their culture to convey the Christian message in a uniquely African context that combined elements of European Christianity with African traditions.

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Christianity in Africa Stays the Course Christianity has enjoyed remarkable staying power in some parts of Africa, even in places where there were no priests or missionaries for many years. The rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo adopted Christianity in the 14th century. When Garcia V became king in 1803, however, there was no priest who could sanction his rule. It was not until 1814 that a representative of the Catholic Church came to Congo to bless the king's rule and his marriage. During this period of neglect, Congo had remained strictly Catholic, and 25,000 of Garcia's subjects were baptized when the priest came to the city. Ten years later his son Pedro became a Catholic priest.

* native mother tongue or dialect of a region or country

African writings. As a bishop, Crowther set himself the task, among other things, of translating the Bible into an African language. His first Bible, written in the Yoruba language, was followed by versions in other African languages. These native* Bibles were an important factor in spreading Christianity among the indigenous peoples. Few African languages had previously been written down. The influence of the grammars, dictionaries, and other works needed for the translation of native Bibles was immense. Reading the scriptures in the native languages gave white missionaries and scholars an opportunity to understand the African perspective. At the same time, Africans' access to written forms of their language enabled them to connect with their own history and cultural heritage. The work of Crowther and others like him ensured that Africans, and not Europeans, would now lead missionary efforts in Africa. White missionary work. Resistance to the slave trade fueled the great missionary efforts of the 19th century and led to the founding of many new religious orders. Protestant missionaries such as Scottish explorer David LIVINGSTONE not only spread Christianity, but also played an important role in mapping the country, documenting African social systems and recording African languages. In addition, they identified the rich natural resources that would be the target of later colonial exploitation. Catholic missionary work was also revived and reorganized during this period. The Catholic Church set out to train indigenous clergy to establish an African Catholic Church run by Africans themselves. By then, white missionaries were encouraged to adopt African dress, language, and customs. The Catholic Church also moved to decentralized control of its missions, giving each one more independence and responsibility for their activities. Christianity of the twentieth century. The early 1900s produced a number of charismatic African religious leaders, including Yohana Kitigana and William Wadé Harris. A former Buganda chief, Kitigana, converted to Christianity, gave up his title, wives and possessions and traveled around Central Africa preaching. Harris was a Protestant teacher in LIBERIA who gave up his western lifestyle and traveled through West Africa baptizing tens of thousands of people. Both men led and reinforced a distinctively African form of Christianity that blended indigenous and European religious traditions. From the early 20th century, education became a major focus of Christian activity in Africa. Schools founded by both Protestants and Catholics during this period educated many of the people who became the leaders of postcolonial Africa. Another concern was health. Christian missions set up hospitals and clinics, and many religious leaders and independent churches focused even more on healing than education. In the 1960s, the Catholic Church formally adopted the position that local African churches should lead Catholic missionary efforts in Africa. Later, in the 1990s, it declared that African churches would not be coerced

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Christianity in Africa can accept pre-existing religious structures and ideas, but could develop its own based on local traditions and needs. The result of Protestant and Catholic activity over the centuries was the spread of Christianity throughout Africa. Today the continent has more than 300 million Christians. While remaining true to its core beliefs, Christianity in Africa has become a distinctly Africanized faith with elements of traditional beliefs and culture. The impressive growth, energy and vitality of indigenous churches have transformed the continent into a new Christian heartland. (See also Copts; Education; Equiano, Olaudah; Ethiopian Orthodox Church; Islam in Africa; Kingsley, Mary; Missions and Missionaries; Prophetic Movements; Religion and Ritual; Tutu, Desmond Mpilo.)

Evil

* Apartheid South Africa's racial segregation policies aimed to maintain white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race

* African South African of European descent who speaks Afrikaans

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People in Africa have been watching, acting and making films since the early 20th century. Until the 1950s, film was generally controlled by European colonial powers. Colonial governments oversaw production and decided which films were allowed to be shown to the public. In the years since African nations gained independence, Africans have developed their own cinema, with their own directors and actors. Many of her films have garnered worldwide attention for their passionate portrayal of social and political issues such as apartheid*. Cinema during the colonial era. The early history of African film was characterized by films made by and for non-Africans. Imported films were shown in West African colonies as early as the 1900s, and colonists in South Africa were soon making their own films. One of the first very successful African films was De Voortrekkers (Winning a Continent), a film about white South African history made in 1916 by African producers* and British producers. Many American and British filmmakers came to Africa to film stories of adventure and colonial conquest. These were often huge productions with overseas crews and leads. The story of H. Rider Haggard's British novel King Solomon's Mines was filmed several times in Africa. In the first version from 1918 thousands of ZULU extras acted in a fight scene. For the 1950 version of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, the film crew traveled 12,000 miles and five months across four countries. They collected truckloads of wildlife and landscape shots that were used in films for years. Several foreign actors rose to fame for their roles in such films, including African American actors Paul Robeson in the 1930s and 1940s and Sidney Poitier in the 1950s. From the 1920s, feature-length documentaries about African people, animals, and geography became popular with foreign audiences. In 1928, Americans Martin and Osa Johnson made Simba: The King of Beasts, a film about lions; In 1959, Henri Storck, a Belgian director, made Les seigneurs de la forêt (Masters of the Congo Jungle). Documentaries about animals have often been broadcast on American television.

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Evil

* Anthropologist Scientist who studies people, particularly in relation to social and cultural characteristics

However, more numerous than dramas and documentaries were the many educational and research films produced in Africa during the colonial period. Anthropologists* and explorers used film to record their research into African peoples and cultures. Colonial officials and missionaries created educational films to teach black Africans "correct" political and cultural views. The views expressed in such works are now considered outdated and even racist. However, the films remain valuable historical documents that provide unique images of places and peoples. Occasionally films produced abroad dealt with issues that worried the colonial powers in Africa. Such films were usually banned by the colony that criticized them. René Vautier of France was jailed for his 1950 film Africa 50, an unflattering look at French rule in Ivory Coast. As recently as the 1980s, the white South African government banned films that criticized apartheid.

Sembène Ousmane is considered by many to be the father of African cinema. His films deal with themes such as colonialism, poverty and the role of women in Africa.

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Cinema The rise of African cinema. The North African film industry dates back to the 1920s. The first Arabic film, Ayn al-ghazal (The Eye of the Gazelle), was shot in Tunisia by Tunisian Shemama Chicly. His daughter Hayde Chicly wrote the screenplay and starred in the picture. In 1927 the first Arab film company was founded in Cairo. His Layla, made with an Egyptian producer, director and cast, was the first Egyptian film. The Egyptian film industry became one of the most prolific in Africa, producing films that were shown throughout the Arab world. In addition to popular entertainment such as romantic films, North African filmmakers have also addressed serious issues. They have documented revolutions and other events that transformed their nations in modern times. Algerian director Mohammed Lakdar Hamina has made several films about the effects of the Algerian revolution and independence from France. One of his best-known works is Vent de sable (Desert Wind) from 1982. Other Africans have also used films to address social issues and present them to a wide audience. The Senegalese director Sembène Ousmane is considered by some to be the founder of African filmmaking. He produced African language films dealing with issues such as colonialism, poverty, corruption and the role of women. Between 1972 and 1982, Ola Balogun from Nigeria made ten feature films, some of which were based on traditional YORUBA plays. In the 1970s and 1980s, many African filmmakers dealt with political issues. Pictures like Sambizanga (1972) showed Angola's revolutionary struggle. Ethiopian Haile Geraima studied film in California before filming Harvest: 3,000 Years in his country in 1974. He also produced Sinkofa, a 1993 film about slavery in Ghana. One of the best-known African filmmakers is Souley-Mane Cisse from Mali. His 1995 painting Waati (Time) is a vision of the African continent as discovered by a young girl. As people around the world appreciate different cultures, the distinctly African cinematography of these artists can reach film and television audiences everywhere. (See also popular culture.)

Cities and Urbanization

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

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he image of Africa as a continent of traditional villages and small towns has never been accurate. Africa has always included both heavily urban and rural settlements. However, cities have grown dramatically in recent years, and some researchers studying population trends have predicted that by the early 2000s, about half of all Africans will live in urban areas. Urbanization - the growth of cities and surrounding areas - has followed different patterns in sub-Saharan Africa* and North Africa. In both areas, however, recent rapid urban growth has been fueled by two factors: the high birth rate among city dwellers and the migration of large numbers of people from rural to urban areas. African cities are magnets. For those living in agricultural areas devastated by drought or war, moving to the city offers a chance for a better life. But many African cities are plagued by problems, including

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Cities and urbanization of North Africa Tin towns Many urban areas in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco are surrounded by unplanned, hastily built shantytowns, so-called bidonvilles. The original bidonvilles emerged at the end of the 19th century. Their name comes from bidon, the French word for petroleum tin. The villagers and country people who migrated to the cities built houses from these tin cans, and over time the bidonvilles became permanent settlements. Eventually, in response to sometimes violent protests by bidonville residents, local governments began providing water, electricity, and other city services to some communities. Yet these settlements remain the most dreary and impoverished parts of the North African urban landscape.

Unemployment, housing shortage, crime and poverty. They also suffer from inadequate public services such as water, electricity, schools and health care. With urbanization expected to continue, African governments and international aid organizations are under pressure to draw up plans to manage the growth of African cities.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Until about 1980, sub-Saharan Africa was predominantly rural, and experts predicted it would remain so. African governments focused on rural and agricultural development programs and paid little attention to the rapid growth of their cities. Today, urbanization is considered a major trend in sub-Saharan Africa. But it has not been accompanied by the modernization and economic growth needed to improve the quality of urban life and support growing urban populations. pre-colonial cities. In the centuries before European colonization, West Africa was the most urbanized sub-Saharan region. Cities arose there as centers of religion and government in ancient kingdoms, and a network of trade routes linked these centers to Muslim cities in North Africa and the Saharan frontiers. Jenne-jeno, located in MALI, is considered to be the oldest city in West Africa. Almost a thousand years old as early as 800 AD, Jenne-jeno consisted of many round brick houses surrounded by a wall. At that time it actually consisted of two cities: a birthplace and a nearby settlement of Arab merchants. This mixture of Islamic and African elements was typical of many sub-Saharan cities with ties to North Africa. Founded around 1000 AD, the city of TIMBUKTU in Mali became an important center of trade and a center of Islamic learning in the 1400s and 1500s. Further south in present-day NIGERIA, the YORUBA established city-states that controlled areas of the surrounding countryside. Ile-Ife, the capital of the Yoruba, was at the center of the royal palace. Sixteen residential areas extended from the palace, one for each of the 16 large family groups. When the European gold and slave trade along the West African coast began in the 14th century, new cities sprang up to expand the trade northwards inland. Despite the presence of European trading posts, the organization and population of these cities remained African. Cities existed in other parts of Africa during the pre-colonial period. In ETHIOPIA, the city of AKSUM was an important economic, political and religious center. Along the coast of the Indian Ocean in East Africa, urban centers sprang up around ports that served seafarers from the Arabian and Indian peninsulas. With magnificent mosques, palaces and baths, Kilwa was the most magnificent East African city in the 14th century. However, larger but less lavish cities such as Mombasa and, in the 19th century, ZANZIBAR dominated coastal trade. Colonial Urban Development. Between the 1500s and the mid-20th century, European influence and colonial rule created a series of large urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa. Some of these cities grew out of settlements founded by Africans, modified and enlarged by Europeans. Others were new settlements established to serve as colonial administration.

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Cities and Urbanization

Tripoli, Libya is a modern city with an ancient history. Here a trader sells fresh melons in front of a Roman vault.

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Trade or commercial centers. However, most cities developed near the locations of natural resources such as gold, tin, coal or diamonds mined by Europeans. In the early colonial period, Europeans established small forts and trading posts, often on or near the coast. These settlements eventually grew into major urban centers including ACCRA in GHANA, LAGOS in Nigeria and CAPE TOWN in SOUTH AFRICA. Most inland cities, such as JOHANNESBURG and Nairobi, were not founded until the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The urban areas became industrial centers. At first, the African population in urban areas was largely made up of adult males who had come in search of industrial jobs, leaving their families behind. The

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Cities and urbanization The high proportion of men continued into the mid-20th century, when more and more families began to move from the countryside to the cities. One of the main characteristics of colonial cities in sub-Saharan Africa was the segregation of blacks and whites. Europeans established residential and commercial areas in the more desirable parts of the city, forcing black Africans to establish their neighborhoods elsewhere. Colonial administrators also created parklands or industrial areas that served as buffer zones between the European and African quarters. While colonial officials strove to ensure the comfort and safety of Europeans and provide them with various services, they generally paid much less attention to African quarters.

Tall, modern buildings line this busy street in Nairobi, Kenya. Although Nairobi is the financial, commercial and tourist center of East Africa, unemployment and inadequate housing make life difficult for many of the city's residents.

cities since independence. Sub-Saharan Africa is still the least urbanized region in the world, with less than a third of the population living in cities. However, sub-Saharan Africa is also experiencing the fastest urban growth in the world, and researchers predict that by 2025 more than half of the region's population will live in cities. Although Southern Africa is considered to be the most urbanized part of Sub-Saharan Africa, cities in West and East Africa are expanding much faster than in other areas. Lagos, Nigeria, one of the fastest growing cities, is becoming what experts are calling a megacity - a very big one

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Cities and Urbanization

* Shantytown Poor, run-down part of a town, often inhabited by immigrants

See Color Plate 14, Vol. 3.

large urban center. If growth rates continue, Africa will have more megacities than any other continent by the end of this century. Managing the growth of these urban centers and solving their problems are among the greatest challenges currently facing African governments. One of the most common features of modern African cities is the growing number of people living in slums*. These communities are typically overcrowded and filled with inadequate housing, and have little or no sanitation or other public services. People in slums generally build shelters on land they don't own using whatever materials they can find - board, tin, or even cardboard and plastic. Because African governments cannot afford to replace inadequate housing or provide basic services, many shantytowns have been accepted as inevitable. Another problem in African cities is the lack of jobs. The economies of most African nations are simply unable to provide enough jobs for their growing populations. Unemployment and the high cost of living in the cities combine to create a serious problem of poverty. Various other problems such as crime, illiteracy and disease are associated with poverty and unemployment. As these conditions can lead to social and political unrest, they threaten the stability not only of cities but also of African nations. Some experts believe that one way to improve Africa's urban future prospects is to encourage the growth of small and medium-sized cities and reduce the pressure on large urban centers. These smaller cities could also serve as a link between megacities and the agricultural landscape. However, such plans require reliable transport systems, and highway and rail links between cities and rural areas are inadequate in much of Africa. Another way of dealing with the future is the development of national city plans. Such plans would go beyond the immediate needs of cities, focusing instead on long-term efforts to provide housing and services, create jobs, and establish economic links between urban centers and the rest of the country. African leaders recognize that continued urban growth is inevitable and that city life will be the future for more and more Africans.

NORTH AFRICA Home to ancient Egyptian civilization and site of ancient Phoenician, Greek and Roman colonies, North Africa has a long history of urban life. Today it is the most urbanized part of Africa. In MOROCCO, TUNISIA, ALGERIA and LIBYA, more than half of the total population lives in towns or communes. Large cities have existed in North Africa for thousands of years, and some modern-day cities stand on the sites where they were founded. The Egyptian culture that built the pyramids and other monuments also founded cities, which are evidence of careful urban planning. ALEXANDRIA, an important port on the Mediterranean coast, is more than 2,000 years old. The Arabs who conquered North Africa in the Middle Ages

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class structure and caste

* Mosque

Muslim place of worship

class class structure structure and caste caste

* pre-colonial refers to the time before European powers colonized Africa

founded many of the region's most important cities, including Marrakesh and Fez in Morocco, Tripoli in Libya and Tunis in Tunisia. At the heart of every Arab city was the kasbah, a fortress that served as the center of government and a mosque* with an attached tower called a minaret. Around the city was a wall broken by several gates. After European powers took control of North Africa in the 18th century, urban areas expanded rapidly. Colonial trade in particular contributed to the growth of port cities such as Casablanca in Morocco, Algiers and Tunis. As Europeans settled in major North African urban centers, they became double or twin cities. One half of the twin cities was the medina, the old walled Arab city with narrow, winding streets. The other half was a new European-style town with wide, straight, tree-lined streets and houses built on large lots. The rapid urban growth that began in the colonial era continued after the North African nations gained independence in the mid-20th century. North African governments faced two challenges in relation to their cities. The first was to unify and modernize the native and European sections of the cities. This has proved very difficult and in many cases divisions remain. The second challenge was to provide housing, employment and services for the people who are flocking to the cities in ever greater numbers. (See also Architecture; Colonialism in Africa; Development, Economic, and Social Affairs; European Communities; Houses and Dwellings; North Africa: Geography and Population; Population.)

As in most parts of the world, Frican societies are divided into various groups or classes. Each class has its own specifics, roles, privileges and limitations, and relationships with other groups. Few hunting-gathering societies have no formal class divisions. The class structure of African societies today is a patchwork quilt. Some of the traditions that have shaped them come from the pre-colonial* period. Other elements can be traced back to Western influences. The result is a complex structure that is still evolving as new forces of change reach African societies.

TRADITIONAL CLASS SYSTEMS * Hierarchical organization of a group into higher and lower levels

Traditional African societies are stratified - organized into levels like the layers of a cake. Three basic principles define the hierarchy* within African class systems. The first of these is aging, the quality of being older than someone else. The second is bondage, the state of controlling or being controlled by others. And the third is a person's rank or level in society relative to the ruler. Age. Peasant society, made up of fairly simple agricultural communities, is widespread in Africa. In such societies, everyone lives pretty much the same. Differences in wealth and occupation have little or

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Class Structure and Caste Keep Distance When empires like the Kingdom of Mali ruled West Africa, behavior in the royal courts was governed by rules that emphasized the distance between the king and his subjects. The king's power, wealth, and dignity elevated him far above commoners, nobles, and even his own relatives. People who came before this god-like figure had to show their own low status by sprinkling ashes or dust on their heads. The king, in turn, kept his distance from other people by addressing his subjects through a speaker and never speaking to them directly.

* Exploitation relationship where one side benefits at the expense of the other

* Handyman

skilled craftsman

* Patron, special guardian, protector or supporter

* Caste division of people into classes based on birth

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no meaning. Instead, the hierarchy is based on the concept of priority, that is, who came first. Status - respected position - and power belong to old and established groups rather than to new ones. Respect for age is the key to the social organization of these societies. For example, a group that has cleared an unoccupied piece of land gets priority or the right to be honored as the first settlers on that land. To maintain peaceful relations, newcomers wanting to live nearby must acknowledge the primacy of those who got there first. The first settled family usually heads the local councils. Other families take on responsibilities according to their ability, and some may gain influence because of their wisdom, strength, courage, or fertility. In most communities and families, status is linked to age. Each person has less status and authority than older people but more than younger people. Ultimate authority rests with the oldest person in the community. But even that person must respect the authority of the departed elders—the ancestors. In some societies, the whole community is organized into age groups—groups of people in the same stages of life. As members of an age group grow older, they gain power and standing in the community. Bondage. In other traditional African societies, the class structure was based on levels of control or bondage. After about 500 AD, several centrally organized warring states emerged in parts of Africa. In these states, violence and exploitation* gave rise to societies ruled by classes of military aristocrats or nobles. Slaves and servants were at the bottom of the social structure. Slaves were people captured or defeated in war. Servants were the offspring of slaves and other servants born into bondage on their masters' estates. Just above slaves on the social ladder were commoners, including peasants and merchants. They could not be enslaved, but they could own slaves. With more rights and authority than commoners, aristocrats were still higher in society. Only people from this class could rise to the highest level of all - domination. Many African societies share a similar tripartite class structure. For example, among the TUAREGs of Northwest Africa, kings or leaders come from the Imajeghen, a class of nobles who make up less than one percent of all Tuaregs. Below this class are the imghad, the common people. The third and lowest class, the Iklan, consists of farmers, herdsmen, laborers and artisans* whose ancestors were black Africans enslaved by the Tuareg. A form of hierarchy called patronage or clientele has also shaped African societies. It is a relationship between people of unequal status, wealth, or power. The higher-status* patron provides protection or security to the lower-status client, who in turn is expected to show loyalty and obedience to the patron. A user can have many customers, and customers can have their own customers. Complex networks of patronage are part of the fabric of social and political life in both traditional and modern communities. In some aristocratic societies, patronage developed into a system called caste*. Patrons protected and cared for members of certain castes—such as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, or musicians—who were producing

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Class Structure and Caste In many African societies, people gain respect and importance as they age. Older members of a group, like these Swaziland church elders, often hold leadership positions.

Things the patrons wanted. Although caste members were considered free, they were under the authority of kings and nobles and could not marry outside their own groups. Castes tended to become closed, hereditary groups within larger societies. Rank. As aristocrats competed for power and status, rank systems emerged that created hierarchies within the courts of kings and emperors. Some of these hierarchies contained many subdivisions. Ranking gave rise to elaborate systems of etiquette by which individuals recognized each other's rank.

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* Clan group of people descended from a common ancestor

Heirs to the throne and aristocrats were not the only people who could attain high rank. Because rival heirs and ambitious noble clans* could threaten a king's power, rulers often appointed trusted slaves to high-ranking positions as advisers or military officers. Sometimes, as in the Kingdom of TOGO, court slaves eventually took over the throne. Islamic societies in North Africa adopted an Arabic-influenced ranking system in which warrior clans held power. Elsewhere, even small communities of Muslim merchants created local governments on the Islamic model. Judges and holy men were of high rank because they gave the laws and advice needed to conduct business, administer slavery, and settle disputes.

MODERN SYSTEMS Although many Africans remain deeply loyal to traditional social systems, Western institutions and politics dominate modern Africa. Social class influences everyone's day-to-day behavior, but the class structure is too complex and varied to simply summarize. In fact, the class structure of African society is still taking shape. Class. In urban environments and societies that are modernizing, the elite class—people with power and influence—is growing. In the 1960s, the African elite consisted of small groups of men and women, generally from the same schools and universities. Today, the elite class has grown both larger and more diverse. Its members serve as a link between African societies and a global elite – the owners and executives of international companies and organizations such as the United Nations. Although at the top level of their own local or national status system, the African elite forms the bottom tier of the international super class. Members of the global elite also constitute an enduring social class in African society. Non-African officials of international companies and agencies are not citizens of any African nation in which they live and work. You don't vote. They have no local ancestors and usually no descendants that will remain in Africa. However, their western way of life and behavior have far-reaching implications for African society. Contrasting with the elite is a mass of peasants, workers, migrants, shopkeepers, small business owners, clerks, schoolteachers, soldiers, policemen and minor civil servants. These people cannot rightly be called a class because they have little in common that unites them. However, they generally share their displeasure at the growing chasm between them and the elite. ethnicity. African peoples are divided into thousands of ethnic groups. Ethnic ties and loyalties connect people across class lines. Workers belonging to one ethnic group are more likely to feel closer to elite members of the same group than workers from another group. In Africa, where nations often encompass many different ethnic groups, ethnic ties can impede the growth of national identity. For example, individuals may consider themselves Ganda or YORUBA rather than

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Cleopatra Ugandan or Nigerian. Ethnic ties can also affect class differences. Heads of state sometimes favor members of their own ethnic group with positions of power and profit. Such favoritism has led to civil wars between competing groups in many African countries. SOUTH AFRICA used to be the continent's prime example of a social fabric based on ethnic and racial identity. Under the system called APARTHEID, social groups were legally organized into a hierarchy, with whites at the top, followed by Indians, "coloreds" (people of mixed race) and Africans at the bottom of the social ladder. Although apartheid has ended, its social and economic inequalities remain and South Africa's class structure still exhibits strong ethnic and racial elements. Rank. In modern Africa, rank has little bearing on social organization. Rank has lost most of its importance because it has no place in the foreign economic and political systems that now dominate much of Africa. Only in a few cases, including SWAZILAND, LESOTHO and BOTSWANA, have hereditary hierarchies been preserved. The ethnic kings of these nations are heads of state. Elsewhere, ethnic rulers – like the Buganda king in UGANDA and the Muslim emirs in northern NIGERIA – have become regional leaders with limited power. In some situations where rank remains important, it can have both religious and political significance. According to Islamic tradition, some groups of BERBERERS in North Africa place the highest place in their social order on people who claim descent from Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam. Catholic churches in Africa also maintain a rigid, elaborate and formal hierarchical hierarchy. (See also Age and Aging, Ethnic Groups and Identity, Gender Roles and Sexuality, Islam in Africa, Kings and Royalty, Kinship, Slavery, Women in Africa.)

Cleopatra Cleopatra 69-30 BC Egyptian queen

leopatra, one of the most famous figures in ancient history, was the last ruler of egypt in the tradition of the pharaohs, who had ruled the country for several thousand years. She came in 51 B.C. on the throne. as wife of her brother Ptolemy XIII. Prior to this, Rome had been increasing its control over Egypt for several hundred years. Young Cleopatra needed an ally in battle with enemies in Egypt. According to legend, she had herself rolled up in a carpet and handed over as a gift to the powerful Roman general Julius Caesar. With Roman support, Cleopatra defeated Ptolemy and reigned as pharaoh. She also began a love affair with Caesar. Caesar built a palace in Rome for Cleopatra and her son Caesarion. After Caesar 44 BC. Cleopatra allied himself with Mark Antony, another leading Roman. Antony hoped that the riches of Egypt would help him become ruler of Rome. Cleopatra bore Antony three children. She hoped that he would make her children his heirs and future rulers of Rome. In the year 32 BC Octavian, Antony's great rival in the Roman government, declared war on Antony and Cleopatra. The two lovers lost their navy in a battle near Greece and retreated

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Cleopatra ALEXANDRIA where both committed suicide. Though she lost her life and kingdom, Cleopatra is remembered in history as an intelligent, ambitious, and passionate ruler.

Climate

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

Maritime Madagascar The large island nation of Madagascar off the southeast coast of Africa has a maritime climate, meaning it is mainly influenced by the sea. Strong regular winds, called trade winds, blow from the southeast and bring moisture from the Indian Ocean to eastern Madagascar, where there is up to 137 inches of rain a year. East Madagascar is more affected than any other part of Africa by cyclones, large tropical storms with strong winds that sweep across the island from the Indian Ocean between November and April.

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he diverse climatic zones of Africa range from scorching deserts to icy glaciers, from steaming rainforests to grassy plains. Climate is a long-term weather pattern, the sum of features such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. The amount of heat from the sun plays a major role in determining climate. The equator receives more heat from the sun than any other part of the world, and the zones on either side of the equator are called the tropics. Africa, which is bisected by the equator, is the most tropical continent on earth. Only its northern edge and southern tip lie outside the tropics. Half of Africa lies north of the equator and half south. This symmetry, or balance, produces coincident climatic belts roughly equally spaced north and south of the equator. The center of the continent has a humid tropical climate with extremely heavy rainfall. In the north and south there are tropical climate zones with a dry season. Beyond are belts of tropical climates with prolonged dry spells and occasional droughts such as have led to famine in the SAHEL. North of the Sahel lies the almost rainless SAHARA DESERT, but in the narrow southern part of Africa, cool, moist air masses moving inland from the oceans bring some summer precipitation to the KALAHARI DESERT. Finally, north and south of the desert regions are belts with a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. climate designer. Other environmental factors such as winds, ocean currents and the land's surface conditions create variations within these climate belts and give different regions of Africa their distinct local climates. One of the most important climate designers in sub-Saharan Africa* is the Intertropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, the point where warm, humid tropical air masses converge. The ITCZ's regular cycle of movement takes it north of the equator between March and June and south of the equator between September and December. These movements determine the number and timing of rainy seasons across Africa. Areas within the path of the ITCZ have two rainy seasons; those on the northern and southern edges of the ITCZ trail have only one rainy season. The Sahara to the north and the Namib-Kalahari desert region to the south are outside the influence of the ITCZ and receive little rainfall. Mountains and sea currents also influence the climate. Mountains force the ITCZ's air masses to rise, cool, and release their moisture in the form of rain or even snow, bringing more annual precipitation to mountainous areas. The cold Benguela Current in the Atlantic Ocean cools the surrounding air and keeps the ITCZ away from southwest Africa. As a result, this region generally receives little rain. However, it does get some moisture from fog that forms along the coast.

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Climate

The tropical rainforests of Africa receive heavy rainfall throughout the year, which supports lush vegetation and a canopy of tall trees.

Seasonal movements in the atmosphere over the North Atlantic affect the climate of North Africa. In summer, an area of high atmospheric pressure known as the Azores High prevents humid Atlantic air from reaching the region's Mediterranean coast. Because of this, summers in North Africa are hot and dry, influenced by winds blowing north from the Sahara. In winter, however, the Azores High moves south, allowing cool, humid air from the Atlantic to reach the coast, bringing milder and wetter weather. Regional climates. Each climatic region has its local variations. North Africa's Mediterranean climate bestows at least 16 inches of rainfall a year on its coast, with some mountainous regions receiving several times more. However, the southern interior of the region has a desert climate with less than 4 inches of rainfall. Between these two areas is a region of dry, flat plains called steppes, where annual rainfall ranges from 4 to 16 inches and summer droughts last five months or more. Rainfall in the steppes can cause devastating flash floods. Equatorial Africa includes the southern coast of West Africa and the rainforests of Central Africa. It rains heavily in this region throughout the year, although there are two periods of even heavier rainfall. These rainy seasons generally last from September to November and February to June, although they are longer near the coast.

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Climate The interior of West Africa, the Sahel zone, the Sudan and the Ethiopian highlands form another, drier climate region. The northern parts of this area receive less rainfall than the southern parts and have a single rainy season from October to June. In addition, precipitation in the region generally decreases from west to east. Parts of eastern Ethiopia and Somalia near the Indian Ocean have a desert climate. East Africa, consisting of Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania, stretches across the equator. It has a hot, humid climate along the coast and around Lake Victoria, but cooler climates in the highlands and mountains. The wettest areas are the Lake Victoria basin, mountains, and coastal islands, which receive more than 59 inches of rain annually. Other parts of the region average 30 inches of annual rainfall. April and May form one rainy season, October and November the other. Southern Africa has a similar climate to West Africa and South Sudan. The rainy season is longest in the northern part of the region, where it lasts from November to March. The amount of precipitation decreases from north to south and increases from west to east - the reversal of precipitation patterns north of the equator. The dry season in southern Africa can bring drought. The tip of southern Africa along the coast has a Mediterranean climate with rainfall from April to September and a dry season during the rest of the year. (See also Deserts and Drought, Ecosystems.)

Coetzee, J.M. 1940 - South African writer

* Apartheid South Africa's racial segregation policies aimed to maintain white control over the country's Blacks, Asians and people of mixed race

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he South African writer and literary critic John Michael Coetzee is known for novels that deal with the effects of apartheid in his homeland. Coetzee studied at the University of Cape Town and at the University of Texas, where he received a Ph.D. in the literature. He then returned to SOUTH AFRICA, despite his opposition to the government's racial policies. Among his best-known works is the Life and Times of Michael K, which was awarded the prestigious British Booker Prize in 1983. The book tells the story of an uneducated man struggling to understand and deal with the civil war in his country. His 1986 novel Foe, a retelling of Daniel Defoe's classic Robinson Crusoe, examines how people can be enslaved by language. In 1999, Coetzee won a second Booker Award for Disgrace, a novel dealing with the problems of post-apartheid South Africa.* In addition to writing and literary criticism, Coetzee teaches English at the University of Cape Town and translates works from Afrikaans (a language based on Dutch) into English. (See also Literature.)

See Money and Banking.

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Colonialism in Africa

Colenso, John William 1814–1883 British missionary

* imperialist domination of the political, economic and cultural life of a country or region by another country

Colonialism Colonialism in Africa Africa

ohn Colenso was an outspoken critic of conventional missionary work, condemning the way the colonial authorities treated Africans. Born in England, Colenso became the first bishop of the diocese of NATAL in 1853 and established a mission station in the town of Bishopstowe. He was well read in both Christian doctrine and modern scientific thought and discovery. He was also familiar with Africans' Christian doctrinal understanding and supported many of their views on religious beliefs and experiences. This knowledge and his early experiences in Africa prompted Colenso to write a book entitled The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Critically Examined (1870). In it he argued that the Bible is not the literal Word of God. The book greatly angered the religious authorities and Colenso was excommunicated or expelled from the church. In the early 1870s, Colenso exposed Britain's unfair treatment of the Hlubi of Natal and their chief, Langalibalele. Later, when the British invaded the ZULU kingdom and deposed its ruler, CETSHWAYO kaMpande, he championed the Zulu cause. Unfortunately, Colenso did not succeed in reforming religious thought and colonial-political activity during his lifetime. However, his protests highlighted the violence and injustice that were fundamental elements of European imperialism* in Africa. Colenso had three daughters who continued the fight for African rights in SOUTH AFRICA after his death. (See also Christianity in Africa, Missions, and Missionaries.)

Colonialism, which refers to the establishment of political and economic control by one state over another, had a tremendous impact on Africa. The colonial experience began in the late 14th century when Europeans arrived and established trading posts in Africa. It peaked in the late 18th and early 20th centuries when European powers dominated many parts of the continent. Colonialism in Africa created nations and shaped their political, economic and cultural development. Heritage continues to influence the history of the continent.

OVERVIEW OF COLONIALISM Between 1400 and 1800, Europeans began to take an interest in Africa, mainly in the coastal regions. They sailed the shores of the continent, establishing trading posts and trading with the locals. They made little attempt to explore the interior. During this period, Europeans had very little influence in Africa. From the mid-18th century to 1880, Europeans became more involved on the continent. One reason for this increased engagement was growing resistance to the SLAVE TRADE. In 1787 the British established a colony for freed slaves in SIERRA LEONE. About 30 years later, a group of Americans founded LIBERIA for freed slaves and their descendants. Along with efforts to end slavery, Europeans also attempted to bring Christianity to Africa. Their missionaries traveled across the continent to convert Africans and spread Western culture.

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Ethiopia (independent) Liberia (independent)

British colony or influence German colony French colony Italian colony Spanish colony Belgian colony Portuguese colony

* exploit to profit from it; to use productively

* Intermediary

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mediator

By the end of the 19th century, many Africans had begun to accept and assimilate various elements of European civilization. At the same time, the nature of European interest in Africa changed dramatically. Impressed by the continent's abundant natural resources, Europeans sought to exploit the potential wealth*. To achieve this goal, they tried to overpower the African peoples and force them to accept foreign rule. In the 1870s, rival European nations attempted to colonize as much African territory as possible. By the late 1880s, without permission from the African peoples, they had divided most of the continent among themselves. Patterns of European expansion. The first European settlements in Africa were founded by traders. Although merchants generally operated independently, from time to time they turned to their home governments for help in dealing with enemy Africans. Eventually, the European nations negotiated alliances and trade treaties with the coastal peoples. They also appointed officers to protect commercial interests at strategic points along the coasts. Christian missionaries were the first Europeans to set up outposts in interior Africa. The missionaries acted as mediators* between Africans and Europeans, often helping to settle disputes

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Colonialism in Africa The “Scramble” for Africa The competition for territory in Africa was truly a “scramble” as explorers, traders and adventurers of all kinds swarmed the continent and signed treaties with local rulers. Many people feared that this arbitrary approach would lead to overlapping claims. In November 1884, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck called a meeting in Berlin to discuss colonization in Africa. Representatives from 14 countries including the United States, the Ottoman Empire and most European nations attended. They agreed to guarantee free trade and the neutrality of the Congo Free State. Additionally, the policies they set influenced the way European nations partitioned Africa.

* native

resident in a specific place

* Entrepreneur Person who organises, manages and assumes risks of a company * cede * annex area

give in or give up to add a territory to an existing one

* imperialist domination of the political, economic and cultural life of a country or region by another country

between indigenous* communities. However, Christian missionaries have also become a disruptive force in African society. After conversion to Christianity, many Africans would no longer recognize the authority of their local chiefs. In addition, some missionaries provided vital information to European armies and supported military expeditions against African groups that refused to embrace Christianity. African rulers did not develop a common policy towards the Europeans. Some tried to regulate or ban contact with Europeans. However, many coastal states had already become too dependent on overseas trade to sever their ties with Europe. Meanwhile, Europeans took advantage of rivalries among African peoples, forging alliances with some groups against others. In the late 1870s, Africa began to attract other types of Europeans: adventurers and entrepreneurs*. Many of these individuals were only interested in gaining wealth or recreating European culture in Africa. They urged their governments to found colonies that would serve as sources of raw materials and markets for European goods. The urge to found colonies and procure raw materials led to the so-called "Scramble" to Africa. Initially, four nations - Belgium, France, Great Britain and Portugal - fought to claim territories and set up colonial outposts. Various people tried to get African rulers to sign treaties relinquishing control of land*. Between 1884 and 1885, representatives of several European nations met in Berlin, Germany to discuss ways of avoiding conflict to compete for African colonies. The European powers agreed on a set of rules for the annexation* of territories. In the years that followed, they signed various treaties that resulted in the division or division of Africa into colonies with clearly defined borders. As the pace of European imperialism* increased, many African peoples became very concerned. Fears that the Europeans would take over the entire country led to a series of armed conflicts. Some of these developed into full-blown wars as well-armed armies from Europe invaded Africa to secure territorial claims. By 1914, Europeans had taken over the entire continent except for ETHIOPIA and Liberia. European imperialism now entered a new phase - the establishment of colonial administrations that would maintain order and bring economic benefits to the ruling nations. The Colonial Order. European politics in Africa consisted of two parts: the colonial government and the colonial economy. The colonial government dealt with the affairs of a colony at the central and local levels. European officials ran the central government, which made and implemented laws and oversaw the judicial system. Local governments were reportedly run by traditional African leaders. In most cases, however, local chiefs and kings were accorded little real authority. European officials dominated almost all colonial governments until after World War II, when some countries allowed Africans to play a larger role. Although colonialism brought stability to some regions, it was

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* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, created a passage for trade between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. When Britain gained control of the canal in 1876, it was able to invade and conquer Egypt.

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did little to encourage the development of African political institutions or provide administrative training to local people. The colonial economy was perhaps the most important aspect of European politics in Africa. By the 18th century Africa had developed a system of local and foreign trade networks, and Africans and Europeans were fairly equal trading partners. However, this situation changed when Europeans took steps to control trade and natural resources in Africa. Colonial powers flooded Africa with European-made goods, causing many African industries to collapse because they were uncompetitive. The Europeans also encouraged the growth of cash crops* in Africa, with each colony specializing in a different crop. The emphasis on cash crops destroyed many traditional forms of agriculture. In some colonies, white farmers received special treatment. They claimed the best land and forced the Africans to work less desirable plots. Some colonial governments imposed taxes on Africans. To pay them, many Africans had to give up their lands and work on white-owned farms and in mines for wages. Effects of Colonialism on African Societies. Colonial governments brought roads, railroads, ports, new technologies, and other benefits to Africa. However, their policies also damaged traditional economies and dramatically changed patterns of land ownership and work. Although the colonial system offered opportunities – such as

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Colonialism in Africa King Leopold's colony Leopold II was crowned King of Belgium in 1865 at the age of 30 and was soon fascinated by the unexplored expanses of Africa. With the help of explorer Henry Morton Stanley, he laid claim to a region of the Congo River Basin roughly 80 times the size of Belgium. Although Leopold's main interest in the colony was the personal power and prestige it brought him, he also sought to capitalize on its rich supply of natural rubber. This led to his downfall. When the mistreatment of rubber workers in Leopold's Congo became known, Belgium stepped in to take over the colony.

Education, jobs and new markets for goods - for some Africans it has left many people poor and landless. Furthermore, the emphasis on cash crops grown for export made African societies dependent on foreign nations. Little was done to develop trade between the colonies. As a result, many African nations still trade more with overseas countries than with neighboring countries. Colonial rule destroyed the traditional political and social institutions that had developed in Africa over centuries. As Europeans created empires, they destroyed existing kingdoms and divided or united many ethnic groups. Over time, the colonies they founded became African nations made up of diverse groups that had little in common with their fellow citizens. In addition, European powers destroyed much of the political and social control of traditional African chiefs and rulers. However, they failed to create a permanent replacement for these authorities. Eventually, European colonialism introduced Africans to various aspects of Western culture. African schools and universities are based on European educational and religious systems. But other parts of Western culture have not taken root as firmly. The effects of colonialism varied somewhat with each European power. Additionally, some governments used different approaches from one colony to the next. The handful of European nations that ruled Africa - Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain - developed different strategies for their colonial possessions.

BELGIUM In a way, Belgium became a colonial power by accident. Unlike Britain, France and Spain, it had no history of conquest and colonialism in the Americas or Asia. The nation's engagement in Africa arose out of the actions of one individual – King Leopold II of Belgium. The Congo Free State. In the late 1870s, King Leopold hired British adventurer Henry Morton STANLEY to give him territory in Africa. Experienced in exploring Central Africa, Stanley traveled to the Congo region and made treaties with a number of local chiefs on Leopold's behalf. When the European powers agreed on plans to colonize Africa at the Berlin Conference, Leopold was given control of an area around the Congo River basin. The colony became known as the Congo Free State and belonged to the king, not Belgium. Leopold ruled it with an iron fist and directed his entire economic and political policy towards increasing profits. He instituted harsh measures such as forced labor and allowed the brutal treatment of workers. In 1904 other nations began pressuring Leopold to end the atrocious conditions in the Congo Free State. In 1908, after examining the situation there, the Belgian government decided to annex the region and make it a Belgian colony and not a personal property of the king. Belgian Congo. Under Belgian rule, the Congo Free State became known as the Belgian Congo. Belgian authorities ended forcibly

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Colonialism in Africa Protectorates Instead of claiming territories in Africa as colonies, European powers sometimes established protectorates instead. Although the term "Protectorate" was used in the 19th century, there have been situations since ancient times where one country exercises some control over another. Rome had relationships of this type with various kingdoms, including Numidia in North Africa and Syria and Pergamum in the Middle East. In 1648, at the end of the Thirty Years' War, France established an informal protectorate over Alsace. In 1815 the Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece became a British protectorate. Britain later established several protectorates in different parts of Africa.

* Organization of the League of Nations for the Promotion of World Peace and Security; it functioned from 1920 to 1946

work and gave greater recognition to the traditional chiefs. Furthermore, they made no attempt to impose European culture on the African peoples. At the same time, the Belgian authorities gave other groups - including missionaries and private companies - plenty of freedom to pursue their own interests in the region. The Belgian colonial authorities, the Catholic Church and big business generally worked together, although at times at odds. The Catholic Church, for example, opposed government attempts to support the authority of traditional African chiefs, which could weaken the influence of missionaries. Both the church and the government have criticized Belgian companies for their labor recruitment methods, which often disrupt rural communities. In the mid-1950s, some Belgians and Africans began to call for decolonization—a gradual end to colonial rule. By this time, the Belgian authorities had granted Africans certain limited rights, but no voting rights. After riots broke out in 1959, the Belgian government announced that it would grant independence to the Congo in June 1960. This abrupt shift from a colony to an independent state left Congo Africans unprepared to govern or manage the economy. As a result, the new nation - later known as Zaire and then as the Democratic Republic of the Congo or CONGO (KINSHASA) - remained dependent on Europeans for leadership and support. Rwanda-Urundi. Belgium also temporarily held the area east of the Congo known as Rwanda-Urundi. Governed by Germany from 1899 to 1917, the region was transferred to Belgium by the League of Nations* after the First World War. Belgium administered the colony until 1962 when it split into the independent nations of RWANDA and BURUNDI.

GREAT BRITAIN * Diplomatic practice for managing relations between nations without warfare

Through a combination of diplomacy* and military force, Britain acquired a vast colonial empire in Africa in the late 19th century. In dominating this vast territory, British policy varied depending on local conditions and the type of British settlement. In some areas, colonial authorities favored a form of 'indirect rule', in which local African rulers held some degree of power. In others, British officials took a more direct approach to governing, controlling all aspects of society. Although some well-educated Africans - mostly lawyers - held high government posts in the late 19th century, they were replaced by British officials after 1900. West Africa. The British colonies in West Africa were NIGERIA, the Gold Coast (today's GHANA), Sierra Leone, GAMBIA and - after World War I - CAMEROON. Throughout West Africa, Britain tended to exercise its power indirectly, often working with African kings. In areas without established rulers, the British generally chose Africans as chiefs. The British established a system of law and order in these colonies. They also built a network of roads, railroads, and ports for transportation.

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Colonialism in Africa ment of cash crops and other goods. They imposed taxes on Africans, which had to be paid in cash, to increase the labor force. The only way Africans could make these tax payments was by selling produce or working for wages. Colonial authorities also sometimes permitted forced labor. The British offered few advantages to the Africans. Although colonial governments founded some schools, most educational institutions were run by missionaries. Services such as medical facilities and electricity were concentrated in large cities and therefore only reached a small number of Africans. In the early 1940s, British authorities began offering more services and involving Africans in economic planning and government. Ultimately, however, such a policy was not enough to satisfy Africans' desire for self-government. By the mid-1960s Britain had granted independence to all of its colonies in West Africa.

* Autonomy independent, self-government

East Africa. Britain's East African colonies were UGANDA, KENYA, ZANZIBAR, British Somaliland and Tanganyika, a former German colony known as German East Africa. The British also ruled the islands of MAURITIUS and the SEYCHELLES in the Indian Ocean. They began controlling East Africa in the late 19th century, eventually establishing distinct administrations in each colony. In Uganda, the British pursued a policy of indirect rule that gave local leaders considerable autonomy*. They encouraged Africans to grow cash crops, making Uganda one of Africa's wealthiest colonies. British authorities in Uganda gave political support to the Ganda, one of the country's many ethnic groups. However, the Ganda became too powerful and other African groups resented them. The Ganda tried to prevent the British from interfering in Uganda's affairs and providing social services, education and agricultural improvements to the people. In the 1940s, other Ugandan groups organized anti-Ganda protests. Eventually, resistance to European and Asian control of the cotton industry united the people of Uganda, and Britain granted the country independence in 1962. Unlike Uganda, Kenya's colonial government was dominated by European settlers. The fertile highlands of Kenya attracted many European farmers who planted vast plantations, taking the best land and forcing Africans to settle elsewhere. For many years, British policy in Kenya benefited white settlers. As the population grew, Africans began to push for the right to expand into white-owned lands. This expansion was strongly opposed by the settlers. In the early 1950s, a group called MAU MAU, made up of members of the GIKUYU people, began a violent uprising against the settlers. After trying to put down the rebellion, the colonial authorities realized that they had to agree to some of the Mau Mau's demands. The government allowed Africans to farm in the highland regions, which forced some white settlers to abandon their lands. In addition, the British began talks with Kenyans about independence, which was granted in 1963. Located south of Kenya, Tanganyika was a German colony until World War I, when it was taken over by Britain. Initially, the colony attracted few

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* Protectorate control of a weak state by a stronger one

British settlers and little investment. However, in the 1950s Britain became more involved in Tanganyika, encouraging settlement and introducing various political and economic policies. Although Africans opposed some of British policies, the move towards independence - granted in 1961 - was relatively peaceful. Zanzibar was a colony of the Arab state of Oman since the mid-19th century, mainly used as a slave origin. For years it was ruled by an Arab upper class. When the British took over Zanzibar, they continued the tradition and filled most government posts with Arabs. Rivalries between the Arabs and the indigenous people created conflicts that Britain was unable to resolve. The colony was granted independence in 1963. The following year, Zanzibar and Tanganyika merged to become the nation of TANZANIA. British Somaliland was in the northern part of present-day SOMALIA, near Djibouti. Great Britain established a protectorate* there in the 1880s. In 1960, the region merged with Italian Somaliland further south to form the independent Republic of Somalia. Britain conquered the island of Mauritius in 1810 and then officially gained control of it through the Treaty of Paris (1814), signed by several European nations at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The same treaty gave Britain the islands of the Seychelles. Mauritius gained independence in 1968, followed eight years later by the Seychelles. Central and southern Africa. British colonial possessions in Central and South Africa included Southern Rhodesia (now ZIMBABWE), Northern Rhodesia (ZAMBIA), Nyasaland (MALAWI), Bechuanaland (BOTSWANA), Basutoland (LESOTHO) and SWAZILAND. Before 1910, when SOUTH AFRICA became independent, Britain also had two colonies in this region - the Cape Colony and Natal. Involvement in South Africa dates back to the early 19th century when Britain acquired Cape Colony from the Dutch. In the late 19th century, British immigrants poured into southern Africa. However, due to the presence of a large number of Dutch settlers, known as Afrikaners or Boers, they never gained more than partial control there. As British settlement increased, many Africans attempted to move north into Bechuanaland. The African rulers of Bechuanaland asked Britain for help in 1885, fearing an invasion by Dutch settlers. Britain agreed and Bechuanaland became a British protectorate. Britain maintained a system of indirect rule there until Bechuanaland gained independence in 1966. A similar situation occurred in Basutoland, a mountainous country that the Africans had initially considered unsuitable for settlement. However, in the 1850s, Africans began to expand into Basutoland. In response to a call for help from local people, Britain established a protectorate in Basutoland. Originally governed as part of the Cape Colony, Basutoland came directly under British rule in 1884. However, most of the administration of the area remained in the hands of the indigenous authorities. Swaziland also became a British protectorate. In this case, the British intervened to end the war between two African peoples, the Swazi and the Swazi

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* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

Zulu. Once again Britain instituted a system of indirect rule. It granted Swaziland self-government in 1967 and full independence in 1968. In 1889 Britain gave rights to what became known as Southern Rhodesia to the British South Africa Company headed by Cecil RHODES. Attracted by the supply of large tracts of land, white settlers flooded the region. Attempts by Africans to rebel against the settlers were brutally put down and Southern Rhodesia became a highly segregated society dominated by whites. Forced to live on poor farmland in special areas known as reservations, many Africans had to work for the settlers to earn a living. The British South Africa Company also acquired the rights to Northern Rhodesia. Initially, the British administered the region mostly through local African authorities and there was little resistance to colonial rule. However, as in Southern Rhodesia, the settlers took over the best land and gained political and economic control over the colony and its rich copper mines. The area east of Northern Rhodesia became known as Nyasaland. Governed by British colonial officials after 1904, it never attracted as many white settlers as Rhodesia. Nevertheless, the spread of European plantations in the region eventually aroused resistance among Africans, leading to armed rebellions in 1915. For many years Nyasaland served as a source of labor for other colonies. Whites in Northern and Southern Rhodesia relied on Nyasaland Africans to work on farms and in mines. In 1953, the two Rhodesia and Nyasaland merged to form the Central African Federation to promote the economic and political development of the region. Meanwhile, African protests against colonial policies grew stronger. In the early 1960s, the colonial administrations of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia began to allow Africans greater participation in government. Both regions gained independence in 1964; Nyasaland took the name Malawi and Northern Rhodesia became Zambia. In Southern Rhodesia, settlers fiercely resisted all attempts to strengthen African power. In 1965, the white-dominated government declared the colony independent. African opposition to the government erupted in guerrilla* warfare, and by the 1970s government power had begun to crumble. Until 1980, a majority black African government ruled the nation, which was renamed Zimbabwe. North Africa. Britain was involved in governing two large territories in North Africa - Egypt and SUDAN. Egypt had been conquered in 1517 by the Ottoman Empire based in Turkey. Ottoman influence spread to northern Sudan and other parts of North Africa. In the 1800s, Britain gained control of Egypt as a result of deals over the newly built SUEZ CANAL, which provided a shipping route between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Facing a financial crisis in 1876, the Egyptian ruler sold all of Egypt's interests in the canal to Britain. The sale made Great Britain the majority shareholder. As Egypt's finances continued to deteriorate, British power in the region increased. In 1882, Britain responded to an Egyptian uprising by invading and occupying the country.

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Colonialism in Africa At the end of the 15th century, Europeans set up their first trading posts in Africa.

Around 1700, European missionaries arrive to spread Christianity and Western culture.

1787 British establish colony for freed slaves in Sierra Leone.

1884–1885 European powers meet in Berlin to divide Africa.

1914 Europeans control the entire continent except Liberia and Ethiopia.

1956–1975 Most African nations become independent.

* Bureaucracy large departmental organization within a government

At the start of World War I, Britain made Egypt a protectorate. After the war, local resistance arose against the British, who instituted a harsh policy of keeping the peace. Tensions continued to mount and Britain granted Egypt limited autonomy in 1922. Britain continued to retain some control until the mid-1930s. South of Egypt along the Nile, Sudan was conquered by British and Egyptian forces in 1898. Britain established a joint administration with Egypt to govern the region. As in Egypt, the British had to take brutal measures to maintain control in Sudan during World War I. British and Egyptian rule lasted until 1956, when Sudan gained independence. The new nation faced bitter regional differences between the Muslim-controlled north and the Christians of the south.

FRANCE The French colonization of Africa lasted for several years, beginning in North Africa in the 1830s and extending to Central Africa in the early 20th century. A number of territories began as "military colonies" conquered and then ruled by French forces. Over time, however, civilian administrations replaced military rule. France maintained in principle a policy of direct rule in Africa. French officials had full authority to govern and direct the affairs of the colonies. In practice, however, Africans often played an important role in the colonial bureaucracy*. The French relied on local rulers to aid in their administration. Unlike the British, who left local affairs largely in the hands of African authorities, the French constantly interfered in the affairs of their African subjects. An important feature of French colonial administration was the distinction between "citizens" and "subjects". Only commoners had the same rights as French colonists, and very few Africans became citizens. All other inhabitants of the colonies were subjects. The subjects had no political rights, but they had various obligations, such as service in French armies. France recognized African laws and had people judged by them. At the same time, the authorities tried to get Africans to adopt certain aspects of French culture, such as the French language. As with other European powers in Africa, an important goal of French colonization was economic development. However, France had a difficult time boosting its colonial economies. Many of its colonies were sparsely populated and could not supply many workers. In addition, private and commercial companies controlled the economies of a number of colonies for many years. France exercised little influence over these companies. North Africa. France's North African colonies consisted of ALGERIA, TUNISIA and MOROCCO. French forces invaded Algeria in 1830 to prevent pirates stationed there from attacking ships in the Mediterranean. After placing a number of coastal towns under military rule, the French eventually gained control of the rest of the country. In the 1860s and 1870s, French settlers began to colonize many areas of Algeria.

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Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia helped negotiate independence from France and became his country's first president.

* vulnerable

open to damage or attack

* Nationalism Devotion to the interests and culture of one's own country

In Tunisia, France competed with Britain and Italy for economic control. When violence broke out in Tunisia in 1881, a French naval force invaded and established a protectorate. Morocco escaped European dominance for many years. However, in 1880, European powers forced the Moroccans to sign a treaty guaranteeing the rights of foreigners in the country. In the 1890s, political disorder in Morocco left the country vulnerable*. France and Spain took control in 1906 and ruled together for three years until Spain withdrew its claim to the land. French control of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco was never secure. Throughout the colonial period, the region's residents were in an almost constant state of rebellion. In some of the more remote areas, people never accepted French rule. As early as the 1930s, popular resistance began to fuel the independence movements. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, its Vichy government retained control of the North African colonies. American and British forces invaded and took over the region in 1942, but returned it to France after the war ended. In the years that followed, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco all experienced a wave of nationalism* and local opposition to French rule increased dramatically. Faced with rampant violence, terrorism and unrest, the French granted independence to the countries - Morocco and Tunisia in 1956 and Algeria in 1962.

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See Color Plate 7, Vol. 2.

West and Central Africa. French colonies in West and Central Africa included SENEGAL, GUINEA, IVORY COAST, TOGO, Dahomey (now BÉNIN), Cameroon, CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC, GABON and French Congo (now CONGO, BRAZZAVILLE). Before the mid-18th century, France had little interest in these areas except to establish trading posts and mission stations along the coasts. However, during the "scramble" for Africa, the nation has targeted a number of areas in each region in hopes of preserving areas of valuable resources. France used military force to take over most of its colonies in West Africa. In some areas - such as Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey - the French met fierce resistance from the Africans. After establishing control of the coasts, it sometimes took a few years for them to move inland and take possession of the interiors. In 1904, France's colonies in West Africa, including some in southern Sahara, were officially organized into one large administrative entity known as FRENCH WEST AFRICA. Finally, French West Africa included Senegal, French Sudan (modern-day MALI), Guinea, Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Upper Volta (modern-day BURKINA FASO), NIGER, and MAURITANIA. Some Senegals were granted French citizenship and some became members of the French legislature in Paris. After World War I, the former German colony of Togo was divided between France and Great Britain. France acquired Cameroon in Central Africa as a result of World War II. The former German colony of Cameroon was divided into East Cameroon (or Cameroon controlled by France) and West Cameroon (or Cameroon controlled by Britain). France won Congo, Gabon and the Central African Republic as a result of treaties with local rulers and military force. In 1910, Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, and Chad were combined into one administrative entity known as FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA. Serious challenges to French colonial rule began after World War II, when Africans began to push for greater autonomy. Financially drained by the war and the problems with its territories in Southeast Asia, France could hardly resist African demands. The Overseas Reform Act of 1956 gave the African colonies autonomy in their internal affairs while France remained responsible for defense and foreign affairs. By 1960 all French colonies of West and Central Africa had gained full independence. The Southern Sahara. The French colonies in southern Sahara that comprised the area known as SAHEL were Mauritania, Mali, Upper Volta, Niger and Chad. France colonized this arid region primarily to connect its other territories and prevent other Europeans from claiming them. Although France gained control of most of southern Sahara in the 1890s, the region's nomadic peoples resisted foreign rule for many years. The French ruled the vast and sparsely populated region through local rulers who enjoyed a high degree of autonomy. Most of the colonies were administered as part of French West Africa, with Chad being part of French Equatorial Africa. After the Second World War, there were no strong independence movements in Southern Sahara. In 1958, France created the French

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Colonialism in Africa Community, an organization that gave internal autonomy to its African colonies. Though formed primarily to satisfy independence movements in other parts of Africa, the French Community also benefited from the colonies of southern Sahara. When France granted independence to its colonies in West and Central Africa in 1960, it did the same to its colonies in southern Sahara. East Africa. France's colonies in East Africa included Madagascar, RÉUNION, COMOROS, and French Somaliland (modern-day Djibouti). In the late 1700s and early 1800s, France competed with Britain for control of the island of Madagascar. For a number of years, France dominated the coast of Madagascar while Great Britain held the interior. At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, Britain agreed to allow France to establish a protectorate over the island. Resistance to French rule led to a bloody but unsuccessful uprising in 1916. When Germany occupied France during World War II, the British took over Madagascar because of its strategic location on the shipping routes between Asia and Europe. After the war, France regained control but faced a growing movement for independence, which it granted in 1960. Reunion Island came under French control in the early 18th century. As an important sugar-growing area, it was dominated by white plantation owners who used slaves to tend the sugar crops. By 1848 the French government had abolished slavery. In 1946 the island became a French overseas department. The French established a protectorate for the four Comoros islands in 1885 and made them a colony in 1912. The islands declared independence in 1975, but France still claims one of them - Mayotte - as territory. France obtained the tiny colony of French Somaliland as a result of treaties signed with local African rulers in 1862. Located at the southern end of the Red Sea, the colony allowed France to guard the shipping routes leading to the Suez Canal and the railway to Ethiopia. France granted independence to the colony in 1977.

GERMANY See color plate 11, vol. 3.

German colonialism in Africa only lasted from 1884 to 1914. Germany's defeat in World War I resulted in the loss of all of its colonies. The nation drew little economic benefit from its African possessions, and resistance to colonial policies led to a series of bloody rebellions. German colonies in Africa included Togo and Kamerun (Cameroon) in West Africa, Southwest Africa (modern-day NAMIBIA), and German East Africa (modern-day Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi). Germany's policies in these areas differed somewhat, reflecting its history of involvement in the region. Germany began establishing commercial and missionary activities in Togo and Cameroon in the mid-1840s. The nation acquired both territories as colonies during the "Scramble" for Africa in the 1880s. Two different colonial systems developed under German rule. In Togo, traders and missionary societies worked together to influence colonial policies that favored their interests in the colony. In Cameroon, plantation owners exercised a great deal of power in the colonial administration. As well as

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* Genocide intentional and systematic killing of a specific ethnic, religious or national group

colonies, Germany's primary goal was the exploitation of natural resources. The policies of the colonial administration were often brutal and harsh. German missionaries came to South West Africa in the 1840s. Settlers soon followed, establishing farms and towns, and the area became a German colony in 1885. A mining industry developed after the discovery of mineral resources in the late 18th century. African resistance to colonial policy led to a bloody uprising from 1904 to 1908. Germany then sent troops to the colony, and thereafter the military dominated the colonial administration. South West Africa became one of the most brutal colonial societies on the continent, and many Africans (mainly Herero people) were killed in a genocidal strategy*. German exploration of East Africa began in the 1860s, and Germany's claim to the region was established at the Berlin Conference. Initially, the colony was governed by a trading company, the Deutsche Ostafrika-Kompanie. However, after violent uprisings by Arabs in the coastal regions, the German government took control. As in other German colonies, colonial rule in East Africa was rather ruthless. After Germany's defeat in World War I, Britain and France acquired Togo and Cameroon and divided the territories between themselves. The League of Nations authorized South Africa to administer South West Africa and gave Britain control of most of German East Africa. The remainder of German East Africa, known as Rwanda-Urundi (now Rwanda and Burundi), went to Belgium.

ITALY Like Germany, Italy's rule in Africa was relatively short-lived. Like Germany, Italy lost its colonies in Africa as a result of the war - in this case its defeat in World War II. Italy had no history of conquest and colonization in other parts of the world. As a result, it had few officials experienced in colonial affairs. Additionally, the Italian government and people had little interest in colonization. Consequently, Italian colonial policy was rather haphazard and disorganized, and colonial rule depended largely on local choices and situations. Because of their inexperience, Italian authorities often had to rely on the military to help administer and control the colonies. Italy's first colonies were in the "Horn" of Africa, a region between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. In 1885, Italy signed various treaties with Muslim rulers in this region and received rights to ERITREA and Italian Somaliland (modern-day Somalia). Both colonies were hot, dry regions that other European powers had deemed worthless. However, since Italy was a weak nation at the time, it could not compete with other countries for more valuable territories. In 1936, Italian forces stationed in Eritrea invaded and took control of ETHIOPIA, an ancient African kingdom that had remained independent during the "scramble" for Africa. Italy joined the conquered territory with Eritrea and Somaliland to form the colony of Italian East Africa. In 1937 an assassination attempt on the Italian governor of Ethiopia led to a reign of terror in which many Ethiopians were arrested and executed.

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Portugal, the first European power to explore Africa, established settlements on the west and east coasts of the continent. This Portuguese fort in Mombasa, Kenya was built in 1593.

sweet. Unrest in the country continued to grow and by 1940 Ethiopian resistance groups had grown in power. During World War II, British forces invaded Ethiopia, restoring the monarchy and ending Italian rule. Italy's other colony was LIBYA on the coast of North Africa. For many years, Italians had crossed the Mediterranean to settle in Libya. However, Italy made no attempt to colonize the area until the early 20th century. In 1911, Italian troops invaded Libya and attempted to seize control from the Ottoman Turks, the country's Muslim rulers. After occupying a number of coastal areas, the Italians claimed the region as a protectorate. Muslim resistance to Italian rule led to an organized revolt that in some places lasted until about 1931. During World War II, Britain, France and their allies launched extensive campaigns against the Italians in Libya. After the war, the colony was divided between the British and French, but a unified Libya gained independence in 1951.

PORTUGAL The Portuguese were the first to explore sub-Saharan Africa, first sailing along its coasts in the 14th century. Their first colony there, the CAPE VERDE islands off the north coast of Africa, was established in the 1440s. Cape Verde's settlers pioneered new systems of tropical agriculture and developed a distinctive culture that blended African and Portuguese elements.

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Remember: words in capital letters have separate entries, and the index at the end of this volume will lead you to further information on many subjects.

Portugal established four more colonies in Africa: Portuguese Guinea (present-day GUINEA-BISSAU), SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE, ANGOLA and MOZAMBIQUE. A small administrative post in Portuguese Guinea, Guinea-Bissau became the capital of the Portuguese colonies of West Africa in the 1900s. An international trade zone since the 14th century, Guinea-Bissau shipped ivory and gold to Europe and slaves to America over the centuries. Angola was also a source of slaves in the 1600s and 1700s. Portugal established its claim to Angola through treaties with other European powers in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In 1914, Portugal gave Angola a measure of autonomy, although white Portuguese still ruled the colony. The African population regularly staged uprisings until Angola gained independence in 1975. The tiny island colonies of São Tomé and Príncipe also gained independence in 1975. These mainly agricultural islands have been controlled by Portugal since the 15th century. For many years they mainly served as stopovers on the Portuguese slave route from Africa to America. The Portuguese presence in Mozambique dates back to the late 14th century when explorers established a series of trading posts along the coast. Portuguese claims to the colony were recognized during European negotiations over Africa in the late 19th century. At that time, a trading company, the Mozambique Company, was put in charge of managing the colony. Mozambique became independent in 1975. Portuguese colonial rule in Africa focused on trade and economic development. Some Africans in Portugal's colonies acquired commercial skills, while others received sufficient training to become clerks and administrators. In general, however, little attempt was made to include Africans in colonial government. In addition, colonial economic policies often encouraged forced labor and other harsh measures. At the beginning of the 20th century, a significant number of Portuguese began migrating to the African colonies in search of opportunities. This migration increased in the 1930s. The presence of immigrants, who took jobs and land from Africans, exacerbated racial tensions and led to political and social unrest. In some colonies, notably Angola and Mozambique, these unrests played an important role in the quest for independence.

SPAIN From the late 14th to early 18th centuries, Spain maintained a large colonial empire in the Americas. However, when the European nations divided Africa into colonies in the late 19th century, the Spanish had little power. As a result, Spain acquired only a few colonies in Africa: the Spanish Sahara (present-day WESTERN SAHARA), Spanish Guinea (EQUATORIAL GUINEA), and a cluster of tiny territories on the north coast of Morocco. Spain's claim to the Spanish Sahara - a barren area of desert - dates back to 1884, but it wasn't until 1934 that Spain gained control of the interior. By the early 1960s, Morocco and Mauritania had begun claiming parts of the region, fueling an independence movement in the Spanish Sahara. As the colony became increasingly difficult to govern, Spain withdrew in 1976.

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Komoren

* Moors North African Muslims who conquered Spain in the 7th century AD

HANDEL

Comoros Comoros Islands

Spain gained control of the small colony of Spanish Guinea on the west coast of Africa at the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885. In 1902 Spain formed a special council to administer the colony and oversee its development. Two years later, it laid down basic land tenure rules, including protecting the land tenure of some indigenous peoples. The Spanish largely left local affairs in the hands of traditional African rulers and groups. In the 1950s, the sub-Saharan areas of Spain became "overseas provinces", making them integral parts of Spain. Africans in Spanish Guinea were granted Spanish citizenship in 1959, and the region gained autonomy in 1963 and independence in 1968. Spain's tiny areas of Ifni, Ceuta and Melilla along the coast of Morocco are remnants of a time when both Spain and Morocco were controlled by the Moors*. During the colonial period, Spain and France jointly ruled Morocco, although France actually ruled the colony. When France granted Morocco independence in 1956, Spain relinquished all claims to the region except for Ifni, Ceuta and Melilla. It returned Ifni to Morocco in 1968, but Ceuta and Melilla still remain Spanish territories. (See also African Republics; Arabs in Africa; Christianity in Africa; Development, Economics and Social Issues; Economic History; History of Africa; Independence Movements; Missions and Missionaries; Nationalism; Neocolonialism; Plantation Systems; Southern Africa History; West African Trade Settlements; World Wars I and II .)

See Markets; Act.

he Comoros are a group of four islands lying in the Indian Ocean between MOZAMBIQUE and MADAGASCAR. Mayotte, the easternmost island, is an administrative region of France. The other three - Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani) and Mohéli (Mwali) - make up the Federative Islamic Republic of Comoros. All islands are of volcanic origin. Mayotte, the oldest, is fairly flat; the other islands are mountainous. At 7,790 feet, Mount Karthala is the islands highest peak and an active volcano. Comoros enjoys a tropical climate with a rainy season from October to April and a dry season from May to September. The average temperature is around 20 °C in the dry season and between 22 and 30 °C in the rainy season. The islands' fertile volcanic soil and mild climate provide favorable conditions for agriculture. Most residents depend on local agriculture, ranching, and fishing for their livelihood. However, the population has increased so rapidly in the last 50 years that there is some doubt as to Comoros' continued ability to support itself. In addition, crops grown for export bring less income due to reduced demand for the islands' main agricultural products - vanilla, cloves and perfume oils.

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Comoros Islamic Federal Republic of Comoros

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: vanilla, cloves, perfume oils, copra, coconuts, cinnamon Manufacturing: perfume distillation, textiles, jewelry, building materials Tourism is also an important industry.

POPULATION: 578,400 (2000 estimated population) AREA: 838 km². our. (2,170 km²) LANGUAGES: French, Arabic (official); Comoros (a Swahili dialect) NATIONAL CURRENCY: Comorian franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Sunni 86%, Roman Catholic 14% ISLANDS: Greater Comoros (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani), Moheli (Mwali), Mayotte (Moors); Capital: Moroni, 30,000 (est. 1999) ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 43 to 114 inches. (1,100-2,900mm)

* coup sudden, often violent overthrow of a ruler or government * mercenaries

hired soldier

* Leaving an organization or country

168

ECONOMY: GNP per capita: US $685

GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1975. President elected by popular vote. Governing Bodies: Assemblée Fédérale, elected by universal suffrage. HEADS OF STATE SINCE 1990: 1990–1995 President Said Mohamed Djohar 1996–1998 President Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim 1998 President Tadjiddne Ben Said Massounde (Interim) 1999– Colonel Azali Assoumani FORCES: 520 (1996 est.), serving under approximately 20 French officers. EDUCATION: Compulsory for ages 7-15; Literacy rate 57%

In recent years, the islands have made great efforts to build up the tourism industry. With its beautiful beaches, coral reefs and warm climate, Comoros has long attracted visitors. Tourism offers an opportunity for economic growth in the near future. The Comoros have been inhabited for over a thousand years, but for most of that time each island was separate and ruled by its own sultan or sultans. As a result, the islands developed independent traditions and dialects of the language known as Swahili. Even today, the inhabitants of the various islands have difficulty understanding each other. For hundreds of years, Comoros prospered when Indian Ocean winds brought sailing ships engaged in trade between Asia and Africa to the islands. This trading activity resulted in a very diverse population made up of Africans, Arabs, Indians, Europeans and Madagascans (peoples from Madagascar). The invention of the steamship put an end to this era and the islands eventually became dependent on the French. France gained control of the Comoros in the late 19th century and in 1912 placed it under the rule of its colony of Madagascar. The islands remained attached to French Madagascar until the end of World War II. Three of them gained independence in 1975, but Mayotte residents chose to remain under French control. Since independence, the government has been overthrown several times by coups* supported by foreign mercenaries*. The French intervened twice. The country became the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoro Islands (FIRCI) in 1978 with Ahmed Abdallah as President. An attempt by the island of Anjouan to secede from the republic* led to another coup in 1999 and military rule under Colonel Azali Assoumani. The island of Mayotte is still claimed by FIRCI but remains a territory of France. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Government and Political Systems, Islam in Africa.)

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Kongo (Brazzaville)

Conakry

Congo (Brazzaville) Congo, Republik

Onakry, the capital of GUINEA, is situated at the tip of the Kaloum Peninsula on the west coast of Africa. The surrounding land is swampy and the climate is tropical. During the rainy season, about 144 inches of rain falls in five months. About 1 million people live in the city. In the 1200s and 1300s, Conakry was part of the Mali Empire and descendants of the Malian nobility, the Malinke, still reside in Conakry. From the 1880s to the 1950s, the city - and the rest of Guinea - was ruled by French colonists. After Guinea gained independence in 1958, Conakry residents and the rest of the nation suffered under the radically anti-French leadership of President Sékou TOURÉ. The city became extremely poor. Since Touré's death in 1984, Conakry has seen new life. The city center streets are now paved and shaded with mango trees. Modern shops, nightclubs and restaurants have sprung up, and utilities such as electricity have become more reliable. Conakry's deepwater port serves a thriving export trade in bauxite, bananas, iron ore, and other products. The city is also home to Guinea's only international airport. Roads connect Conakry to IVORY COAST, MALI and SENEGAL, and railways connect it to other Guinean cities including Kankan, Fria, Boké and Kamsar.

he Republic of the Congo lies on the equator and stretches northeast from the Atlantic coast to the heart of the African continent. Its dominant feature is the CONGO RIVER, one of Africa's most important waterways and the most important trade route in the region. Many different ethnic groups live together in Congo's cities, often contributing to political and social unrest.

HISTORY, GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY

* Exploitation relationship where one side benefits at the expense of the other

Two kingdoms and several smaller chiefdoms once occupied what is now the Republic of the Congo. France took control of the region in the 18th century and claimed it as a colony for more than 150 years. Since gaining independence, Congo has struggled to maintain a stable government and economy. But internal conflicts and continued exploitation* by European powers have made this task particularly difficult. history and government. The most important of the pre-colonial kingdoms were the Kingdom of Kongo and the Kingdom of Téké. The Kingdom of Congo occupied the south-western region of the Congo with its capital in present-day north-western ANGOLA. The Kingdom of Téké was located in the middle of the Congo River, where it controlled the flow of goods between the interior and the coast. The Portuguese were the first Europeans in the Congo region. Arriving in the 1480s, they maintained a strong presence there for over 200 years. However, French traders and missionaries gradually supplanted the Portuguese, and by the late 17th century France had become a major

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Congo (Brazzaville) Before signing the treaties establishing the French Congo, Pierre de Brazza (1852-1905) explored much of West and Central Africa for France. Brazzaville, the capital of Congo, was named after him.

European power in the Congo. Between 1875 and 1885, a representative of the French government, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, signed a treaty with the Téké king and established military posts in the region. Brazza - after whom the capital of Congo BRAZZAVILLE is named - later became the first commissioner of French Congo. However, he was replaced when he refused to open the country to exploitation by French companies. Under colonial rule, local people had to work in brutal conditions to mine the region's natural resources and build roads and railways to the Atlantic coast. After World War II, France granted Congo a degree of self-government and allowed limited political and social reforms. Congo gained independence in 1960 and Fulbert Youlou became its first President. In 1963, Youlou declared Congo a one-party state with himself at the helm. The announcement was followed by three days of unrest and Youlou was overthrown. His successor, Alphonse Massemba-Débat, reigned for four years

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Congo (Brazzaville) Republik of the Congo

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $1,500

POPULATION: 2,830,961 (2000 est. population) AREA: 132,000 square miles. (342,000 km²) LANGUAGES: French (official); Congo, Lingala, Teke, Monkutuba, other Bantu dialects NATIONAL CURRENCY: CFA franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Christian (predominantly Roman Catholic) 50%, traditional 48%, Muslim 2% CITIES: Brazzaville (capital), 1,004,000 (1999 est Population); Pointe-Noire, Kayes, Loubomo, Ouesso, Impfondo, Fort Rousset, Djambala ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies by region and averages approximately 1,520 mm (60 inches) per year

* Coup Sudden, often violent, overthrow of a ruler or government

* Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works

MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: cassava, sugarcane, rice, corn, peanuts, vegetables, coffee, cocoa, timber Processing: lumber and plywood, petroleum refining, cement, textiles, food processing Mining: potash, petroleum, lead, zinc, copper, uranium, Phosphates, natural gas GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1960. Military dictatorship officially declared multi-party in 1991. President elected by general suffrage. Organs: Assemblée Nationale and Sénat (elected legislative bodies), Council of Ministers (appointed by the President) HEADS OF STATE SINCE 1979: 1979–1992 President Colonel Denis Sassou-Nguesso 1992–1997 President Pascal Lissouba 1998– President Denis Sassou-Nguesso ARMED FORCES : 10,000 (est 1998) EDUCATION: Compulsory for 6-16 year olds; Literacy rate 75%

before being replaced by a military coup led by Captain Marien Ngouabi. Like his predecessors, Ngouabi attempted to gain complete control of the government. In 1977 he was assassinated and replaced by General Joachim Yhombi-Opango. Two years later, another coup brought Colonel Denis Sassou-Nguesso to power. Sassou has been more successful than previous Congolese leaders in gaining control of the nation. He eliminated political rivals and placed his followers in government posts. But Sassou heeded calls for more democracy in 1991 when he allowed the formation of a national convention that stripped him of his powers. The following year Pascal Lissouba was elected President. Sassou and others organized resistance to Lissouba's rule, and by 1997 the nation was embroiled in a violent civil war. Lissouba was forced to flee the country, and Sassou resumed the presidency. Outbreaks of fighting and civil war continued in the years that followed. Business. Congo is rich in natural resources including timber, diamonds, gold and many different minerals. However, political unrest and a lack of infrastructure* slowed down the country's economic development. Although many Congolese are engaged in agriculture, agriculture accounts for only a small percentage of the national wealth. As a result, Congo imports much of its food. Oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s and quickly became the nation's main source of income. However, a large portion of this revenue goes to the European companies that have helped Congo develop its oil resources. Other

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Industry of Congo (Brazzaville) - including food processing and textile production - is concentrated in the three capital cities of Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire and Nkayi.

LAND AND PEOPLE The Congo consists of four main regions: the Coastal Plain, the Nyari Valley, the Téké Plateau and the Congo Basin. All regions experience two dry and two rainy seasons per year. The coastal plain has a cooler and drier climate than the rest of the country. The Nyari Valley, northeast of the Coastal Plain, has fertile soil that grows many of the country's crops, such as coffee, cocoa, and sugar. North of the capital, the Téké Plateau is a region of low hills and undulating, sandy plains. The Congo Basin in the northeast consists of tropical rainforest and flat, swampy valleys. Due to its rugged terrain, the northern part of the country is much less developed than the south. The Congo's population is heavily concentrated in the south, with nearly two-thirds of the people living in or around the cities of Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire, which are the two terminuses of the Congo-Ocean Railway. In addition, many people live in the small towns that have arisen along the railway line, which were mainly built as railway stations. Almost a third of the country's entire population lives in Brazzaville alone. Although most people share an urban lifestyle, the Congolese are extremely diverse and can be divided into around 75 different groups. About half of the Congo's population belongs to the Congo ethnic group, which lives between Brazzaville and the coast. The other major ethnic groups are the Téké in south-central Congo and the Mbochi in the north. These diverse groups have retained strong traditions and rivalries, and most Congolese still identify more with their own ethnic group than with the nation as a whole. This has made the unification of the country under common political leadership a particularly difficult task. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Ethnic Groups and Identity, French Equatorial Africa.)

Congo Congo (Kinshasa) (Kinshasa) Congo, Democratic Republic * Sub-Saharan, refers to sub-Saharan Africa

he Democratic Republic of the Congo – formerly known as Zaire – is the second largest country in Africa. Located at the heart of the sub-Saharan region*, Congo is vast and diverse, and blessed with abundant natural resources. But the nation's history is troubled. Since gaining independence in 1960, it has been plagued by violence, dictatorial rule, economic mismanagement and political corruption. Once a promising land, Congo has become a prime example of the problems facing modern Africa.

GEOGRAPHY The Democratic Republic of the Congo is about the size of the United States east of the Mississippi River. Apart from a very small stretch of coastline along the Atlantic Ocean, the country is landlocked.

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Congo (Kinshasa) SUDAN Uele

Flow

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

Congo River

Oub a

he is

I (U ban

give) zeal

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

(Congo, Kinshasa)

Mbandaka

WRU

Kisangani

KONGO

Boyoma (Stanley) Falls

CONGO BASIN

(Kongo, Brazzaville)

Kikwit

No ladies

matadi

This one

Mbuji—mother

La Tan ke ga a

Iver

opens

Sankuru-Flow

the Q

Luanda

Rabbits

A MOUNTAIN

Malebo (Stanley)

Mount Karisimb 14,787 feet.

Kivu-See

UMB

Brazzavill Kinshasa

WITH

Lukenie River

Lake Edward

. TS

Lualaba River

See Mai Nomba

NS AI NT U O Lak M . Alba EU TS BL I M R ZO EN

RUSSIA

U MO

CONTAIN

The Mweru-See

ANGOLA Likasi Lumbumbashi

300 miles

ZAMBIA

300 Kilometer

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

The Congo is dominated by the RIVER CONGO, one of the largest rivers in the world. The river divides the country into four distinct geographic regions. At the center of the country is the vast Congo Basin, or Central Basin, an area of about 300,000 square miles covered by dense tropical rainforest. This hot, humid region is home to a number of large plantations that produce coffee, cocoa, palm oil and rubber. It is the most sparsely populated area in the country. North and south of the rainforest are forests. These areas, which enjoy abundant rainfall, a fairly temperate climate, and two growing seasons per year, produce most of the country's food. The majority of the country's inhabitants live in the forest areas. The easternmost part of the Congo features high mountains reaching nearly 17,000 feet. With rich volcanic soils, this fertile region produces a variety of food crops as well as coffee and tea. The southernmost part of the Congo consists of forested savannah* and has a much drier climate and relatively few inhabitants.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT * A relationship of exploitation in which one side benefits at the expense of the other

The history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is marked by violence and exploitation* of the people by their leaders. this pattern,

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Congo (Kinshasa) established under Belgian colonial rule from 1885 to 1960, continued after independence under MOBUTU SESE SEKO.

See map in Archeology and Prehistory (Vol. 1).

* native

resident in a specific place

* State of the Soviet Union that existed from 1922 to 1991 and consisted of Russia and 14 other republics

174

Precolonial and Colonial History. The first major state to emerge in the region was the Kingdom of Kongo, which covered an area of about 30,000 square miles by 1500. Congo ruled the region until 1665, when civil war broke out after the king's death. The Portuguese, active in the area since the late 14th century, attempted to take advantage of the confused situation by invading Congo. Congolese forces defeated the Portuguese, but the ongoing war and internal rivalries severely damaged the kingdom. It never regained its former power. At the end of the 19th century, King Leopold II of Belgium sent the American adventurer Henry Morton STANLEY to explore the Congo Basin. Although Stanley had traveled parts of the region before, he had never traveled this far inland. On his mission for Leopold, Stanley signed several treaties with local chiefs. Leopold then used the treaties to claim the territory personally. In 1885, an international treaty in Europe gave the king ownership of the region then known as the Congo Free State. Leopold leased parts of his territory to private companies eager to capitalize on the region's wealth. With brutal tactics, the companies forced the local population to work for them on rubber plantations, in the mines, as porters and in the colonial army. Some scholars estimate that violence, overwork and starvation may have killed as many as 10 million Congolese in 20 years. Leopold ruled the Congo Free State as his own private kingdom until 1908, disgusted with his greed, the Belgian government declared it a Belgian colony. Many of Leopold's practices continued under Belgian rule, although treatment of the indigenous* population was somewhat less brutal. Virtually all government resources and services were controlled by colonial authorities and foreign corporations, and local people had little or no say in economic or political affairs. Independence and the Congo Crisis. In the 1950s, the independence movements sweeping Africa spread to the Belgian Congo. In response to Congolese demands for more rights, the Belgian government proposed a 30-year timetable for independence. Most Congolese found this unacceptable, and increasing political and economic unrest in the late 1950s forced the Belgians to grant Congo independence in 1960. The first president of the new nation was Joseph Kasavubu; Prime Minister was Patrice LUMUMBA, a political rival. Within weeks of independence, the Congolese army mutinied and civil unrest spread across the country. Hundreds of Europeans were massacred and thousands fled the country and returned to Europe. As the revolt continued, Prime Minister Lumumba called on the United Nations (UN) to send troops to restore order. Lumumba also sought help from the Soviet Union*, and soon the United States became involved as well, raising the prospect of a major war. During this period, the important copper-mining region of Shaba in the south-east declared its independence from the new nation.

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Congo (Kinshasa) Heart of Darkness "An empty stream, a great stillness, an impenetrable forest... At night sometimes the drum roll behind the curtain of trees ran up the river and stayed... as if floating in the air high above our heads." These images of the remote interior of the Congo can be found in Joseph Conrad's short story "Heart of Darkness" - one of the most famous works in English literature. The story was inspired by Conrad's own experiences as a young steamship captain voyaging through the uncharted Congo in the late 19th century. It explores not only the darkness of the African jungle, but also the darkness - greed and corruption - that Conrad existed in the heart of mankind.

* communist system in which land, goods and means of production are owned by the state or community and not by individuals. Cold War period with strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II

The Congolese military soon stepped in to help Kasavubu, backed by the US Central Intelligence Agency. The military arrested Lumumba and handed him over to Shaba rebel leader Moise TSHOMBE, who had Lumumba killed. Meanwhile, civil war between Shaba and Congo raged on. In 1962, the UN proposed a peace plan, but Tshombe opposed it, believing he could take over the whole country. But the forces against him were too powerful and he surrendered to Kasavubu the following year. In 1965 Kasavubu himself was overthrown by Colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu, who would rule for more than 30 years with US financial support. The Mobutu Years. Mobutu immediately set about consolidating power in his own hands by eliminating political opponents and fomenting rivalries between competing ethnic groups. He also dissolved parliament and created a single party to control political life. In 1971, Mobutu changed the country's name from Congo to Zaire, which he believed to be an African word for "great river" (actually, it was a mispronunciation of the Portuguese word for river). He also took the name Mobutu Sese Seko (“the all-powerful”) and declared European names illegal. He even went so far as to ban ties because they were part of western attire. Instead of building up the country, Mobutu and his allies plundered it. Mobutu took ownership of foreign-owned companies and gave them to his friends and supporters, who went on to destroy much of the country's economy. In addition, political corruption spread as poorly paid officials had to accept bribes to earn a living. In the mid-1970s, Mobutu issued some reforms to ease some of the economic conditions his policies had created. The reforms had little effect. Mobutu's dictatorship allowed no opposition, and many of his policies were very harsh. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu received support from the United States and other western countries for his opposition to communism*. During this time, Zaire's southern neighbor ANGOLA was in the midst of its own civil war, and western nations viewed Mobutu as a stronghold against the communist forces fighting in Angola. In the 1980s, Mobutu faced increasing criticism both at home and abroad. Zaire's economy was in dire straits, government employees were unpaid and restless, and public order was crumbling. When the Cold War* ended in the early 1990s, Mobutu's Western allies no longer needed him as a bulwark against communism. Seeing himself slipping from control of events, Mobutu made a desperate bid to stay in power by authorizing multiparty elections in 1990. However, he kept putting them off for various reasons. Over the next year, the economy almost collapsed and riots and violence swept through Zaire, killing hundreds and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In 1996, rebel forces in eastern Zaire led by Laurent Kabila began marching west towards the capital, KINSHASA. Zaire's forces were so disorganized and demoralized that they offered almost no resistance. In less than a year, the rebels seized control of the entire country and ousted Mobutu from power.

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Congo (Kinshasa) Democratic Republic of the Congo

POPULATION: 51,964,999 (2000 estimated population) AREA: 905,560 km². our. (2,345,410 km²) LANGUAGES: French (official); NATIONAL CURRENCY: Congolese Franc MAJOR RELIGIONS: Christian 80% (Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%), Muslim 10%, Traditional 10% CITIES: Kinshasa (capital), 5,064.0 (2000 est.); Rainfall in Kisangani, Lumbumbashi, Kanaga, Likasi, Mbandaka, Mbuji-Mayi, Bukavu districts ANNUAL RAINFALL: Varies from 30–60 inches. (800–1500 mm) in the south to 80–118 in. (2,000–3,000 mm) in the central basin rainforest

ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $110 MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: Coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber, tea, cassava, bananas, corn, fruit Manufacturing: Mineral processing, cement, textiles, leather goods, cigarettes, processed foods and beverages Mining : Diamonds, Cobalt, Copper, Cadmium, Gold, Silver, Zinc, Iron Ore, Coal GOVERNMENT: Independence from Belgium, 1960. Dictatorship. HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1960 Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba 1960-1965 President Joseph Kasavubu 1965-1997 President Mobutu Sese Seko 1997-2001 Laurent Désiré Kabila 2001- Joseph Kabila FORCES: 50,000 (2000 est.) EDUCATION: Compulsory from age 6 Literacy rate 77%

The Congo today. When Kabila took office as president in 1997, he changed the country's name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and promised that elections would be held after a two-year period of restructuring. However, Kabila made little headway in establishing democracy, and his government proved almost as corrupt and brutal as the one it replaced. In mid-1998, Kabila himself faced rebellion after ousting the military advisers who had put him in power. These advisers led a rebel force that almost took Kinshasa before Kabila asked neighboring Angola and ZIMBABWE for support. Within months, the conflict spread to Chad, Angola, Libya, Rwanda, Uganda and even Zimbabwe. By 2000, rebel forces controlled the eastern third of Congo, while Kabila, with the military support of its foreign allies, ruled the rest of the country. Like Mobutu before him, Kabila ruled by force and by decree, but his influence over the country depended largely on the continued presence of foreign forces. In January 2001, Kabila was assassinated and his son Joseph was sworn in as president.

BUSINESS

See map in Minerals and Mining (Vol. 3).

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Around 75 percent of the people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo work in agriculture. Most farms are small, lack modern equipment, and use little improved seed or fertilizer. Although some plantations are adopting more modern, larger-scale farming methods, this type of agricultural production has declined over the past 30 years. Mining has been an important part of the country's economy since colonial times. Copper was the most important export item until the early 1990s

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Congo (Kinshasa)

* Regime

* Inflation

current political system or rule

increase in prices

* Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works

was replaced by diamonds. Production is centered in the capital, Kinshasa, and a few other urban centers. However, manufacturing accounts for only a small percentage of the country's economic activity. In the early 1970s, high copper prices and political stability led to multi-year growth in the country's economy. Then, in 1973, the nation's president, Mobutu Sese Seko, confiscated all foreign-owned companies and turned them over to Zairians who supported his regime* — a policy known as Zairianization. Most of these new owners had little business experience and no particular interest in making their businesses profitable. Instead, they enriched themselves with the profits they could make. Zairization had a disastrous impact on the nation's economy. Many companies went bankrupt due to poor management and corruption, and the economy began a long-term decline. Industrial production and mining declined dramatically. High inflation rates* rendered the national currency practically worthless. With the country unable to spend money on maintaining roads and other transport services, its infrastructure* was left to decay. As a result, the cost of transporting food from the countryside to the cities rose sharply, and food prices skyrocketed. In the 1990s, the economic problems led to riots, looting and general unrest. Civil war broke out in the mid-1990s. Today, the country's economy remains in desperate shape and, despite the nation's natural riches and potential, shows little sign of improvement in the near future.

PEOPLE AND CULTURES

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern

The population of the Congo is unevenly distributed. Most people are concentrated in a few areas, more than half of them in cities. About 70 percent are Christians, including many members of the Kimbanguist Church - a Baptist congregation founded in Congo by Simon KIMBANGU. Between 20 and 25 percent practice traditional African religions. The remaining 5 to 10 percent of the Congolese are Muslims. Many of the Christians incorporate elements of traditional religions into their rituals* and beliefs. Congo is home to about 300 different ethnic groups of varying sizes. The most important factor in determining a person's ethnic identity is LANGUAGE. The country has more than 200 languages, but four BANTU languages stand out from the rest. These four languages - Lingala, SWAHILI, Tshiluba and Congo - are used in most schools for instruction and also dominate radio and television broadcasts. Shared histories and participation in business and government play a role in ethnic identity in Congo today. In practice, ethnicity is very flexible, and people often identify with more than one group. A unified national culture does not yet exist, although a common national identity is only now beginning to emerge in the nation's cities, particularly in Kinshasa. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Global Politics, and Africa.)

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Congo River

Congo Congo River River * equatorial referring to the region around the equator * navigable deep and wide enough to allow ships to pass

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

* Hydroelectric power, which is created by converting the energy of flowing water into electricity

* Estuary part of a river where it approaches the sea

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For centuries, the Congo River has played a key role in trade, travel and exploration in equatorial* Africa. The Congo and its many tributaries form the largest system of navigable* waterways in Africa. The river is an important trade and communication route for the local population. The Congo flows 2,900 miles in a great curve through central Africa. It is the second most powerful river in the world (after the Amazon in South America) and dumps 10 million gallons of water into the Atlantic Ocean every second. Along with its many tributaries, it drains a vast area that includes most of the nations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, and the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC. It also drains parts of ZAMBIA, ANGOLA and TANZANIA. Much of the river lies in the Cuvette Centrale, a vast, basin-like depression in the plateau of Equatorial Africa. The main tributaries of the Congo include the Aruwimi, Ubangi, Lulonga, Tshuapa, Sangha and Kasai rivers. The Congo is called Lualaba at its source in the savannas* near the southeast corner of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It flows north through many waterfalls and rapids to Wagenia Falls, not far from the town of Kisangani in the heart of the rainforest. Below Wagenia Falls, the river name changes to Congo. Dotted with countless islands, it curves lazily west and then south through the rainforest. In some places the river is more than 9 miles wide, and at high tide it spills over its low banks into wide floodplains on either side. Below the city of Liranga, the river forms the border between the two Congo states. At Tchumbiri, the river leaves the swampy plains of the Cuvette Centrale and begins to carve its way to the ocean through the Téké Plateau and the Crystal Mountains. It narrows and flows rapidly between steep banks, then widens again to form the Malebo Pool, also known as the Stanley Pool. On either side of the pool are the two capitals, KINSHASA (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and BRAZZAVILLE (Republic of the Congo). Between Kinshasa and Matadi, the Congo drops off steeply, passing 32 waterfalls. This stretch of the river could be the largest source of hydroelectric power* in the world, although little has been done to harness this power. The river is navigable for oceangoing vessels for the last 150 miles from Matadi to the Atlantic coast. The waterfalls and rapids of the Congo kept Europeans out of the central basin during the years of the slave trade. So little was known about the river that as late as the 19th century Europeans thought its mouth might be the mouth of the Niger, far to the north. However, the Upper Congo was well known to African fishermen and traders who traveled the river in very long dugout canoes with up to 60 or 70 paddlers. France and Belgium sought control of the Congo while establishing their colonies in Equatorial Africa. The European attempt to colonize the area was started by Henry Morton STANLEY, the first white explorer to travel most of the river's length. Early colonists transported steamboats piece by piece from the mouth of the river* to Stanley Pool. Once assembled, the boats were used to control trade and enforce colonial rule over the central part of the Congo. Later, railroads transported people and goods from the coast to the steamship networks.

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Copts After the nations of Equatorial Africa gained independence in the mid-20th century, Africans regained control of the Congo's waterway network. At first, African fishermen began to gain power by working on the steamboats that plied the river or trading from their own dugout canoes. These early African traders often had to travel at night to avoid colonial river patrols. Since then, river boats and the barges they pull have become floating marketplaces, sometimes even referred to as floating cities. For a large part of equatorial Africa, the Congo remains the most important trade and travel route. Locals often simply call it Ebale (the river). (See also Congo (Kinshasa), Congo (Brazzaville).)

Copts Copts * Sect

religious group

* Discrimination group

unfair treatment of a

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern

he Copts, a Christian sect* in Egypt, can trace their history back almost 2,000 years. They follow customs and beliefs they adopted long before Islam, the dominant religion in Egypt today, made its debut in the region. According to tradition, Christianity was introduced to Egypt in the 40s AD. The city of ALEXANDRIA became a center of Christian learning, and the religion spread down the Nile Basin into NUBIA and south-east into ETHIOPIA. In the 200s, the Egyptian Copt Antony started a movement to establish monastic communities—religious colonies where Christians could seek spiritual growth. Many Christians from Greece, Rome, Syria, Nubia and Ethiopia spent time in Coptic monasteries. Over time, a conflict arose between the Church in Rome and the Church in Egypt. The Church in Rome held that Jesus Christ had two separate natures—divine and human. The Egyptian Church - along with some other Eastern Churches - instead asserted that Christ had a single, divine nature. This Eastern belief became known as Monophysite Christianity, from the Greek words for "single nature." In 451 a church council in Chalcedon (near present-day Istanbul) condemned the Monophysite view. As a result, the Egyptian Christians and the other Eastern Churches separated from Rome. In the 640s, the Arabs conquered Egypt and introduced Islam to the region. They began to refer to Egyptian Christians as "Copts." Under Arab rule, the Copts slowly abandoned the use of their own language (a version of Ancient Egyptian) and began speaking Arabic. Many Copts worked in the public service or ran businesses. Today between 6 and 9 million Copts live in Egypt. Some are farmers and others work in various jobs in the cities. Although the right of Copts to practice their religion is guaranteed by Egyptian law, they are often discriminated against by Muslims*. The Coptic Church (also known as the Coptic Orthodox Church) runs its own schools and college affiliated with the Institute of Coptic Studies in CAIRO. Their rituals* are in many ways similar to those of the ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH, sometimes referred to as Coptic. (See also Christianity in Africa, Religion and Ritual.)

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Correia, Mutter Aurelia

Correia, Correia, Mãe Mother Aurélia Aurélia early 19th century merchant in Guinea-Bissau * artisan

skilled craftsman

* Ware

Merchandise

IVORY COAST 180

ãe Aurélia Correia was a wealthy and powerful merchant in the GUINEA-BISSAU region from the 1820s to the 1840s. Of the many women traders of African or mixed descent, Mãe Aurélia was the most successful at the time. Little information is available about Mãe Aurélia's birth and family due to poor record keeping by the Portuguese colonial authorities in Guinea-Bissau. Her sister (or aunt), Mãe Julia da Silva Cardoso, worked closely with her. They ran merchant ships and kept many slaves, including sailors and skilled artisans*. As the business grew, the two women collected large amounts of gold and silver jewelry and expensive clothing, and lived in European-style houses. Around 1825 Mãe Aurélia Caetano married José Nozolini, an army officer from CAPE VERDE. It is certain that Nozolini must have possessed excellent leadership skills and other positive traits, for Mãe Aurélia would have been very careful to choose a husband who could help her the most in building her business ventures. Together, the pair continued to amass great wealth and ruled the war-torn and untamed region of Guinea-Bissau. No other leader in the region has been able to mobilize as many people as Mãe Aurélia to defend her family's interests. Nozolini's leadership qualities, combined with Mãe Aurélia's shrewd business skills, enabled the couple to dominate the trade in slaves and other goods* along the Geba and Grande rivers and on various nearby islands. Portuguese colonial officials lacked soldiers and supplies, and depended on Mãe Aurélia, Nozolini, and other traders to maintain order in the region. In 1826, Mãe Aurélia and her husband played an important role in putting down a mutiny at the Portuguese fortress in Bissau. In 1842, the Portuguese asked Mãe Aurélia for help when the residents of Bissau besieged the fortress. When British authorities became aware of Mãe Aurélia and Nozolini's slave trading activities, the couple claimed that the slaves they were shipping to Cape Verde were members of their extended family. In the 1830s, Mãe Aurélia and her husband used slaves to establish peanut plantations on the easily accessible coastal island of Bolama. The island's location gave the British opportunity to attack the two slave traders. In a series of raids on the island, British naval squadrons freed hundreds of slaves in SIERRA LEONE. A son and three daughters by Mãe Aurélia and Nozolini survived infancy. The son, educated in France, took over the family business; two of the daughters married commercial doctors; and the third daughter married a wealthy merchant. Through their own ventures, the children maintained the family's prominence in Guinea-Bissau. (See also slave trade, trade.)

See Ivory Coast.

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handicrafts

See Color Plate 7, Vol. 3.

* Mud construction, which consists of mud or clay laid on a framework of poles

See Color Plate 12, Vol. 3.

For centuries, Africans have made handcrafted items such as fabrics, baskets and pottery to meet the practical needs of everyday life. Such handicrafts are also an expression of the skills of their makers and of personal, regional and cultural styles. Many are made specifically for sale or export to markets in other countries. wicker. Both men and women make many types of baskets and mats from plant materials such as wood, palm leaves, reeds, grasses, and roots. They decorate their handwork with patterns made of differently colored and structured materials or with leather that is sewn onto the wickerwork. There are two basic basket making techniques. In plaited basketry, strands of plant fibers are soaked and then twisted, woven, or twisted together. In sewn basketry, a thin strip of continuous material - usually grass - is sewn onto itself in a spool. Some baskets made this way are sewn tight enough to hold liquid. Baskets serve a variety of practical purposes. Most are used as containers for serving food, storing items, or carrying goods. Some baskets act as tools, such as traps for fish and animals and sieves for flour or brewing beer. Wickerwork techniques are applied to other tasks, including framing thatched roofs and wattle* walls. African baskets also have decorative and social purposes. Hats are often made of wicker adorned with tufts of fiber, feathers, fur, and leather. For example, the traditional beaded crowns of the YORUBA in Nigeria have basket foundations. Groups such as the Chokwe of Angola and Zambia make dance masks from wicker or bark cloth on a wicker frame. Baskets decorated with shells, beads, dyed leather and metal pendants are given as special gifts in much of East Africa. They can also be included in a bride's wedding decorations. Flat mats, another type of wicker, are often used as flooring for sitting or sleeping on. Nomadic Somalis use mats to cover their temporary shelters. In the Congo region, traditional houses are often walled with rigid mats patterned black on a natural yellow background. beads and jewellery. Africans use beads to decorate their bodies, furnishings, and burials. Around 1000 BC the Nigerians had A glass bead industry developed and ancient trade routes circulated beads made of bone, stone, ivory, seed, ostrich eggshell, metal and shell. Indian Ocean cowrie shells were highly prized. Once used as money, they still serve as a symbol of wealth in many places. West and Central Africans traditionally used beads to cover furniture, sculpture, and clothing. Groups in Nigeria and Cameroon created intricate images from tiny colored beads. For many nomadic peoples, carry-on beadwork was the main form of fine art. In East Africa, beaded ornaments indicated the wearer's social position through a complex system of color and design. In many regions, children wore beads to bring health and good luck.

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handicrafts

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

See Color Plate 8, Vol. 4.

* Mosque

Muslim place of worship

People in different parts of Africa make jewelry and other ornaments from colorful beads. This Zulu woman from South Africa threads glass beads onto cotton threads.

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Foreign contacts and modern materials have changed the type of beads used in Africa. Glass beads from India were imported to sub-Saharan Africa* more than 1,000 years ago. At the end of the 19th century, colored glass beads manufactured in Europe were shipped by the ton to Africa, where they were used as a commodity. Despite the widespread use of these imported beads, native African bead-making techniques survived. However, craftsmen began to use new materials in their work. For example, MAASAI groups have recently incorporated blue plastic pen caps into their beadwork in place of traditional quill-pencils. Today, people make beads and other types of jewelry from coins, buttons, wire, and discarded aluminum and plastic, and process these materials in their traditional styles. African artists and artisans also make metal ornaments and jewelry. Many parts of West Africa have a long tradition of producing fine gold jewellery. The country that is Ghana today was officially named the Gold Coast. The name came from the fact that the local ASANTE kings wore so many gold necklaces, bracelets, crowns, rings and anklets. In ancient Egypt, craftsmen used gold to create spectacular jewellery, funerary objects, vessels and furniture for their kings, the PHARAOHS. The TUAREG people in north-east Africa specialize in the manufacture of silver jewellery. Today, many Africans make jewelry and beads to sell to tourists. pottery. Pottery is one of the oldest crafts in Africa. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that people in the Sahara produced pottery more than 10,000 years ago. Clay deposits are found throughout the continent. This versatile material is used to make containers for cooking, storing and measuring food, as well as jewelry, furniture, coffins, toys, beehives, musical instruments, household items and tiles. Even broken pottery has value in Africa - as game pieces, floor tiles and raw material for making new pottery. Traditionally, each piece of African pottery was made by hand. Potters, some of whom were itinerant artisans, developed a variety of techniques that could quickly and inexpensively produce sturdy pottery. They baked it over open campfires, in fireplaces or in simple ovens, the kilns. Although these methods continue to be used, some African manufacturers now make pottery by pressing or casting clay into molds for mass production. Africans often decorate their pottery with textures. They carve or emboss designs and patterns onto the surface of the clay. Artisans in Islamic cultures, particularly in North Africa, painted clay tiles with intricate geometric patterns and designs inspired by Arabic script. These are typically used to decorate mosques* and Muslim religious schools. Africans tend to draw a line between clay sculpture and functional pottery vessels. Traditionally, sculpture is made by men and pottery by women across much of the continent. This division of labor arose in part from a belief that making sound images of humans or animals was considered similar to a woman's ability to have children. However, in many cultures, powerful women and women beyond childbearing age can make figurines. African pottery vessels sometimes have meanings beyond their everyday functions. The style of a pot can reflect a person's position in society.

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Handicrafts Raffia Artists Textiles in the Congo region and other parts of Central Africa have traditionally been made from raffia. Today the best bast weavers come from the former Central African kingdom of Cuba. Men weave the raffia in small rectangles. Women decorate these pieces with embroidery or by carving designs into the surface of the fabric. A garment of the region is the ntshak, a long skirt made of many rectangles sewn together. The ntshak is adorned by a group of relatives, either male or female, depending on whether it is to be worn by a man or a woman. The resulting garment belongs to the 6 or 12 people who helped create it.

* Raffia palm used for weaving and basket weaving

See Color Plate 9, Vol. 3.

See Color Plate 8, Vol. 3.

ety. A widow, a married man, and a child might each be expected to use a jar of a different shape. A jug of flour marking a grave may indicate that a fertile mother is buried within. Pottery vessels can also serve as containers for spiritual powers. One might think that a dead woman's spirit inhabits the pot she used for years to fetch water. Textiles. Textiles are cloths woven from threads. In Africa they are of great cultural as well as practical importance. On important social occasions, people give away textiles and often bury them with the dead. Textiles can indicate the importance of the wearer in the community. Their patterns or color combinations sometimes carry symbolic messages. Cloth was once used as money in some parts of Africa. Textiles remain an important economic factor, particularly in West Africa, where more workers are employed in the production and trade of fabrics than in any other craft. Barkcloth, traditionally used throughout much of Central and East Africa, is not a true textile. It is pounded from the bark of the ficu tree. However, Africans have long used bark fabric in much the same way as textiles. Textile weaving and the manufacture of bark tissue rarely take place in the same area. African textile manufacturers have traditionally used at least five types of hand-powered looms to weave their fabrics. Some types are worked only by men, others by women. All of these looms produce long, narrow strips of material ranging from less than an inch to about 10 inches wide. Sewn together, the strips form rectangular cloths. Today, African textiles are often made in factories on automatic looms. Africans produce many distinctive fabrics woven from cotton, wool, wild silk and raffia* fibers. Egyptian weavers have been making fine linen for over 1,600 years. The Malian FULANI are known for their kaasa blankets, a tightly woven wool fabric that offers protection from the cold and insects. Weavers in southern Ghana and Togo are famous for their kente fabrics, large, richly colored fabrics worn by men at important ceremonies. The most valuable of these are made of silk. BERBER women make brightly colored woolen rugs woven in unique geometric patterns. Synthetic fibers such as viscose play an important role in Africa's modern textile trade. Carving. African carvers - usually men - make sculptures and other works of art such as masks. They also make a wide range of everyday objects, including stools, ax handles, dugouts, headrests, containers for food and liquids, and spoons. Such items are generally made of wood. Works of art and high-quality handicrafts can be decorated with carved patterns and figures of people or animals. Some carvers decorate their woodwork using a technique called pyrogravure, in which the wood is blackened with a hot iron blade. The carving of very simple objects, such as B. an ax handle, may not require any special skills. Often the local blacksmith will combine iron and woodworking skills and adapt a handle to the metal tool he makes. At a higher level there may be a man in an area well known for his craftsmanship. Maybe he spends most of his time carv-

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Handicrafts Many African artisans specialize in making useful objects. The Sudanese women shown here weave baskets from natural materials.

* Hieroglyphs ancient writing system based on pictorial signs

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eng. In some North African societies, nobles paid skilled carvers to create highly ornate wooden objects, from delicate spoons to carved camel saddles. Not all carvings are made of wood. African artists have a long tradition of working with ivory (from hippopotamus and elephant tusks), bone and horn. In Cameroon and the Congo region, carvers use buffalo horn to make ceremonial drinking vessels. Some groups carved figures and whistles out of soapstone, and in Egypt large temples still display detailed images and hieroglyphs* carved into the stone by ancient craftsmen. (See also Art, body jewelry, and clothing.)

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Creole

* Mestizo of mixed European and Native American descent

In Africa, the term Creole refers to all people of a mixture of African and non-African race or cultural heritage. Creole populations are found on most of the African islands and along many of the continent's coasts, areas where Africans first mixed with Europeans and Arabs. Six major Creole types emerged from these contacts: Portuguese, Black American, French, Dutch, British, and Arab. Portuguese, Black American, British, and French Creoles. Portuguese creoles were the first of the European creoles. They emerged in the late 14th century when the Portuguese traded and settled along the west and east coasts of Africa. Creoles living on the islands of CAPE VERDE are descendants of Europeans and enslaved mainland Africans. They speak either Portuguese or a Portuguese-based Creole language. Creoles living near the coast of ANGOLA trace their origins to Mestizo*, Brazilian and African ancestry. They have significant influence over the affairs of the country. Creoles in the MOZAMBIQUE area disappeared during a series of wars between 1830 and 1911. Black American Creoles can be found in SIERRA LEONE, LIBERIA and in scattered communities along the coast of GHANA. They are descendants of freed slaves and, in Liberia, free Black Americans from the southern United States. The Creoles of Sierra Leone are descended from freed Africans who lived in Britain, Jamaica and Nova Scotia. The islands of MAURITIUS and SEYCHELLES and the French territory of RÉUNION are home to most of Africa's French Creoles. They are the descendants of French settlers and slaves brought from East Africa and MADAGASCAR in the 17th century. They speak a French-based Creole language. Dutch and British Creoles. There are more than 3 million Dutch Creoles, known as Coloreds or CAPE COLORED PEOPLE, living in SOUTH AFRICA. There are also small populations in NAMIBIA and other southern African countries. They arose in the 1600s and 1700s through a mixture of individuals of European and KHOISAN origin with Asians from Malaysia, Sri Lanka and India and enslaved Africans from Madagascar and southern Africa. Most are Christian, although there is a small Muslim minority known as the Cape Malays. The vast majority of people living in South Africa speak Afrikaans, a Dutch language. A few thousand British Creoles known as Fernandinos live on the island of Bioko in EQUATORIAL GUINEA. They are descendants of freed slaves from Sierra Leone and Cuba who were married to settlers from CAMEROON, Ghana, Sierra Leone and NIGERIA during British colonial rule. Their Creole descendants became cacao planters. Common features of Creole culture. Creole groups today have more in common with each other than with any African ethnic group. Creole languages predominate on African islands; on the mainland, Creole languages are national languages in Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia and South Africa. In the island societies, Creoles occupy a variety of positions, from plantation workers to members of the wealthy and powerful upper class. On the coast of mainland Africa, Creoles were often given economic and political opportunities.

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Creole connections through foreign rulers. They developed a strong sense of identity and formed their own political parties. As African nations struggled for independence in the mid-20th century, many Creoles supported colonial rule. Some Creoles fought for independence and thereafter held positions of power. In most countries, however, the Creoles gradually lost their political power to inland ethnic groups who were considered more African. The Creole community of Africa has grown in several ways. On the islands, elements of Creole culture, including language and music, dominated popular culture. In mainland Creole towns, some non-Creoles sought to become part of Creole society, which often enjoyed special status. Most people who wanted to join the Creole community converted to Christianity, the religion shared by almost all Creoles except for the Comorian Creoles and the Cape Malays. (See also Ethnic Groups.)

CRIME

Crowther, Samuel Ajayi ca. 1806–1891 Anglican Bishop * Anglican

Church of England

DA GAMA, Vasco

186

See Laws and Legal Systems.

Amuel Ajayi Crowther was a learned traveller, translator and missionary who was appointed the first African bishop in the Anglican* Church. Born in present-day NIGERIA, Crowther was captured and sold into slavery at the age of 12. However, a British anti-slavery ship rescued him at sea and took him to FREETOWN, SIERRA LEONE. There he was baptized and brought up by the Christian Missionary Society (CMS). Crowther soon began studying and preaching the YORUBA language, and in 1843 he became a minister in the Anglican Church. He served as a pioneering member of CMS Yoruba Missions and helped translate the Bible into Yoruba. In 1857 Crowther became head of the Niger Mission and opened five new mission stations, including one for the Niger Delta. In 1864 the Anglican Church appointed Crowther Bishop of West Equatorial Africa with responsibility for missions in LIBERIA, Rio Pongas and other places. In 1890, however, European missionaries critical of Crowther's administration of the Niger Mission forced him to resign. Before his death a year later, Crowther helped plan the reorganization of the Niger Delta Mission, and his son later became its pastor.

See Gama, Vasco there.

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Dance

DAHOMEY

Dakar

* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

dance dance

* hierarchical refers to a society or institution divided into higher and lower level groups

See Benin.

Akar, the capital and largest city in SENEGAL, is one of West Africa's most important ports. The Portuguese landed near modern-day Dakar in 1444, and several European powers fought over the region until the French took control in the mid-16th century. The area was originally valued as a source for slaves. However, after outlawing slavery in 1815, the French forced local people to grow peanuts as a cash crop*. Dakar served for many years as the capital of the colony of FRENCH WEST AFRICA. In 1887, some residents of the city were granted French citizenship, which included the right to vote and participate in local government, as well as representation in Parliament in Paris. During World War II, Dakar was first occupied by the pro-German Vichy French government, but American troops captured the city in 1942. Dakar remained the political center of Senegal after the country gained independence in 1960. Today, this city of about 1.7 million people is home to the University of Dakar, an art museum and a center for nutritional research. It has a thriving port, manufacturing industry and Senegal's only international airport. Dakar is also a popular tourist spot. Despite this, economic growth has stalled and the city is heavily dependent on foreign aid.

Through dance, Africans celebrate, worship, educate and express social organization. Styles vary greatly from culture to culture, but most African dances share some commonalities. In particular, it emphasizes rhythm. Elements of traditional dance and music often blend with contemporary or foreign styles to create new styles of African dance. purposes of dancing. In all African cultures, dance is an expression of social structure. People of the same status, age, or profession usually perform together. In their dances, these groups demonstrate behavior appropriate to their place in the community and the occasion. Dance connects them and strengthens their identity. For example, among the TUAREG in Northeast Africa, each social class has its own style of dance and music, and even its own musical instruments. In traditional societies with hierarchical* organizations, dance can be an expression of leadership. A ruler is expected to proclaim his authority in formal dances. If he doesn't meet the required performance standards, his subjects may lose some respect for him. A ruler's wives and lowly chiefs also have their own specific dance forms to show their position in society. Followers can pledge allegiance and honor their leaders through other dances. An example of a royal dance is this

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Dance that mimics life African dance often reflects the movements or conditions of people's daily lives. Some of the Tekna women from southern Morocco spend their time in low tents, so they dance on their knees. Farmers and fishermen incorporated the movements of chopping and net-throwing into dances that showcase their skills. Hunters can mimic the movements of their prey by dancing or re-enacting a hunt that has just ended. A dance after killing a large animal, for example, tells everyone in the community how it was killed.

* deity * rite

God or Goddess ceremony or formal procedure

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern * sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

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of the ASANTE kings of Ghana brandishing ceremonial swords while dancing. The pointing of the swords to the sky symbolizes the dependence of the kings on the gods and the ancestors. Pointing the swords to the earth represents the king's possession over the land. For many traditional African religious leaders, dance is an integral part of their role. Priests and priestesses use movement to describe the gods they serve. In Nigeria, YORUBA priests serving the thunder god Shango show his wrathful nature with rapid arm movements depicting lightning. They roll their shoulders and stamp their feet to indicate thunder. The leaders of many religious women's societies in West Africa use dance as therapy. They use songs and dances to heal women from various diseases. Masquerade dancers, representing spiritual beings, play a central role in many religious societies. The personal identity of the masquerade dancer is often a closely guarded secret. The dancer performs fully clothed and wears a metal or wooden mask symbolizing a specific deity* or spirit. Before performing special rites*, dancers can train for many years, beginning at an early age. In societies organized by age into groups or groups, individuals pass through many ages in their lives. The dances of each age group promote qualities that society admires in people of that age. The dances of the elderly are usually calm and dignified, while the dances of younger men and women can display qualities such as strength, endurance, and beauty. Dance is an important form of education in traditional African societies. The repetitive dance patterns teach young children physical coordination and control. Dance can also introduce children to the community's social customs and standards of behavior. Children can form their own dance and mask groups, or join the adults at the end of a dance series. Characteristics of African dance. In North Africa, some dance forms have sprung from the region's Arabic and Islamic heritage. An example is the whirling dance of Sufi Muslims known as dervishes. During their rituals*, the dervishes fall into a religious trance and dance wildly, turning and whirling around. Other traditional North African dances share an emphasis on rhythm found throughout sub-Saharan Africa*. The BERBERS of Morocco dance to the beat of drummers gathered around a campfire. The dancers form two rows. People on one line call out a phrase or line, and someone on the opposite line responds. As the call continues, the dancers move as one - shuffling, bending back and forth at the waist, and raising and lowering their arms. In some Berber groups, men and women mix; in others the women form their own line. Rhythm is the central element in sub-Saharan dance. Music and dance are usually inseparable. Usually, musicians lead the dancers by using drums, rattles, and other percussion instruments to sound a beat for the dancers to follow. But in some cultures, the dancer can take over and challenge the musicians to follow his or her rhythm. Sometimes dancers wear leg or ankle rattles that emphasize the rhythm of their movements. In Western cultures, people focus on the forms created by

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Dance

Funerals in Africa often include ceremonial music and dances. Here a group of Mossi people take part in a funeral dance in Ivory Coast.

See Color Plate 2, Vol. 1.

The body of a dancer. African audiences also judge a dancer's skill by their ability to follow rhythms. African dance styles range from simple to acrobatic. The Kambari of Nigeria move in a circle around their drummers, sliding forward with one foot while the other stomps a repetitive beat. The Ndau of southern Africa perform a more vigorous war dance, themed "stomp their feet in pain." The style of dance changes rapidly as accelerating drum beats encourage the powerful dancers to explode into powerful new expressions. Dancing is a group activity. In addition to age groups and professional groups, such as hunters, who perform together, dance groups or clubs are common in Africa. These allow both sexes and different age groups to dance together to perfect their skills. Once a dance club has established an excellent reputation, they are invited to perform at large social events such as weddings or funerals, or to entertain chiefs and important visitors. In some dance groups, members follow a leader and perform rehearsed moves together, with little or no opportunity for individual expression. Other groups allow each dancer to develop a personal style or to step out of the group for a solo performance. Despite being a collective effort, African dancing can be highly competitive and even aggressive. Many traditional dance forms encourage individual dancers or groups to outperform one another. In the early 1900s, some wealthy urban Africans learned the formal steps of western style

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Dance dances and competed in ballroom dancing championships modeled after those in the United States and other Western countries. With much emphasis on beautiful dress, these competitions demonstrated dance's enduring power to establish a person's position in society.

* choreograph a dance

design or arrange

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dance and society. The dance reflects the social order and as African society changes, so does its dance. The Dogon of Mali, for example, have long performed dances in honor of their ancestors, wearing and manipulating carved wooden masks. In the 1930s, foreign promoters discovered their excellence in dance and brought Dogon dance troupes to Paris and the United States. The Dogon dancers learned elements of modern choreography*. They also modified their costumes and modernized their masks for foreign audiences. After returning to Mali, they continued to perform traditional ritual dances in their home areas, but their choreographed shows gained popularity with both local and foreign audiences. Dance is not always reserved for important social functions. It is also the most popular form of recreation in sub-Saharan Africa. But even on informal occasions, Africans don't usually dance just to express themselves individually. They often perform for the admiration and attention of others. Informal African ballroom dancing is constantly evolving into new styles, either invented by talented individuals or inspired by foreign influences. In the 1960s, a recreational dance called Highlife became popular in West African cities. It originated in Ghana, where musicians played western instruments such as saxophones and guitars in open-air cafes. Nigerian musicians followed the same lively style, using local instruments, and dancers adapted their movements to the new sound. Different styles emerged. In some African countries, music and dance took on smacks of Latin rhythms like cha-cha. The people of the Congo were characterized by jazz, which in turn produced its own dance forms. Such examples show that African dance, while drawing on deep and honored traditions, is an ever-changing expression of life as lived today. (See also Masks and Masquerades, Music and Song, Musical Instruments, Religion and Ritual.)

ar es salaam (meaning "haven of peace" in Arabic) is the capital and largest city in TANZANIA. In the late 1990s, the population was about 1.5 million. Arabs from southern Arabia first established fishing villages in the area in the 16th century AD, but the city did not really grow until Sultan Sayyid Majid of ZANZIBAR built a palace there in the 1860s. In the 1890s, Dar es Salaam became the capital of the newly founded colony of German East Africa. The Germans built new buildings and a railway line to the northwest, then lost the region to Britain in World War I. The renamed colony of Tanganyika gained independence in 1961. Three years later, it merged with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania. In the 1970s, the city of Dodoma emerged

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Death, Mourning and Ancestors proposed as the new capital, but the cost of moving was too high and the government stayed in Dar es Salaam. Located in a sheltered harbor on Tanzania's coast, Dar es Salaam has the national university, many foreign embassies and a lively nightlife. In the city center is the main market, Kariakoo, which was built on the site of a former British military camp. Industrial areas have grown on the outskirts of the city along the railway lines and near the port. (See also Colonialism in Africa.)

death, death, mourning, mourning and ancestors ancestors * ritual ceremony that follows a set pattern * burials

in connection with death, burial or

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

People who die are not buried in a field, they are buried in the heart,” says a proverb from the Central African country of RWANDA. Death, of course, is more than the physical fact of an end to life. It also brings emotional and social changes to families and communities. Africans mark these changes with rituals* based on traditional beliefs and customs, as well as Muslim and Christian practices. These funeral customs* provide opportunities for people to dispose of their dead, express their grief, and honor the memory of the departed. For Muslims in North Africa and other regions of Africa, Islamic scriptures and beliefs guide burial customs and ideas about life after death. In sub-Saharan Africa*, traditions about death and mourning vary greatly. In much of this region, death is viewed as the act of becoming an ancestor, and burial practices are related to the important role ancestors play in the lives of those who left them.

DEATH AND FUNERAL In all cultures, burial customs are a way of separating the dead from the living. They may also meet religious requirements or expectations. In addition, funerals and obituaries generally serve social purposes, giving families and communities a public opportunity to show their social position and relationships. Funeral Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa. Funeral customs in sub-Saharan Africa reflect differences in the cultures and histories of different communities. Both European colonial influence and modernization have played roles in shaping these practices. The Lugbara people of northwestern UGANDA live in densely populated settlements where death is a daily occurrence and is witnessed - or at least known - to by many. Though death is familiar, the Lugbara attach great importance to it. Their funeral rites are longer and more elaborate than birth, coming of age, or marriage ceremonies. Many people attend funerals, not just the family of the deceased. In contrast, the Mbeere of Kenya have traditionally lived in small, migratory, widely separated groups. They left their dead in the wild with little ceremony. In the 1930s the British, who controlled Kenya, required burial of the dead, and 30 years later they introduced individual land ownership. In response to these changes, the Mbeere developed elaborate burial ceremonies that became evidence of ownership

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Death, Mourning, and Ancestors Foreheads of the Dead In the early 1900's, the Kalabari of Nigeria began carving ancestral umbrellas with images of their honored dead. The images, called duein fubara (“forehead of the dead”), emphasize the forehead, which is believed to be the site of the tem – the spirit that controls a person's behavior. At death, the tempe leaves the body. It sometimes enters the body of a living person and possesses that person. The Kalabari believed that the Duein Fubara enabled them to locate and control these spiritual beings.

* deity

god or goddess

* Clergymen, priests or other religious officials

Property and tributes to Mbeere leaders and the strength of their followers. Deaths and funerals often involve identity issues in Africa, where many people follow more than one religious tradition and have ties to more than one ethnic group. In one such case, the death of a wealthy man in GHANA sparked a rivalry between two cities to which the deceased belonged through kinship, marriage, and political and economic ties. The rivalry was complicated by the dead man's connections to both the Presbyterian Church and his father's non-Christian deity*. When the Presbyterians buried him and claimed him as one of their own, the question of the dead man's hometown and principal kinship was settled in favor of the town of Presbyterian connection. But funeral arrangements can also serve to recognize more than one identity. Some Africans prefer funeral ceremonies conducted by several clergymen* together. The dead in sub-Saharan Africa are usually buried, usually after being washed and sometimes shaved. Those who are able to preserve the body of the deceased can do so for several days to allow people to gather for the funeral. The form of burial may depend on the age, sex, ethnicity, class or religion of the deceased. Community status and the manner of death also affect burial. Sudden and untimely deaths are considered "bad," and someone whose life ends this way may not receive a funeral at all. However, long life, community service and wealth are celebrated with large and lavish funerals. In all cases, death is associated with pollution, and at the end of the funeral, guests are expected to clean themselves. Young children and pregnant women, who are believed to be particularly affected by death, are often forbidden from attending funerals. In NIGERIA, GHANA, BENIN, BOTSWANA and elsewhere, details about the deceased and funerals usually appear in obituaries. Wealthy people place these obituaries in newspapers, radio, and television to draw attention to upcoming funerals. Poor people - and Muslims who have to bury their dead quickly - rely mostly on radio broadcasts. Obituaries and memorial advertisements that loved ones publish in the media months or years after a death give the bereaved an opportunity to celebrate their place in society by reflecting on the career and achievements of the deceased. Some groups create other types of memorials to the dead, such as B. the carved wooden posts made by the Mahafaly of Madagascar and the Giryama of Kenya. Some traditional African conceptions of the soul's afterlife focus on journeys or judgments. Among others, the Dogon of MALI and the YORUBA of Nigeria believe that the dead must undertake a long and difficult journey to distant spirit lands. Sometimes the supreme deity makes a final judgment on the character of the deceased. While the spiritlands and afterlife are hidden from the living, the dead remain an integral part of living communities in their role as ancestors. Islamic traditions. Muslims never cremate or burn their dead. They bury her. Tradition has it that the burial takes place very soon after death. If possible, someone who dies during the day is buried before sunset; Those who die at night are buried in the morning

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Death, Grief and Ancestors

The Mahafaly of Madagascar bury their dead in remote rural locations. Their box-like tombs are often decorated with geometric shapes and carved wooden sculptures.

eng. After washing, the body is wrapped in a white cloth and buried facing Mecca, the Islamic holy city in Saudi Arabia. Muslim burial and mourning customs vary. Among the BERBERS in MOROCCO, only men attend funerals, and local schoolmasters or prayer leaders read from the Koran, the Islamic holy book. In many Berber groups, relatives of the deceased hold a feast for those who attend the funeral a few days or weeks later. Islamic belief about the fate of the soul after death is based on the Qur'an and the Kitab al-run (Book of the Soul). According to these texts, the angel of death sits at the head of a dying person and directs the soul toward either the wrath or the mercy of God, depending on whether the person has lived an evil life or a good life. Two other angels record the deeds of the deceased. Souls judged to be good, as well as the souls of all Muslims who die in jihad or holy war, go to a garden paradise. Evil souls go to hell of eternal punishment.

THE ROLE OF ANCESTORS Nineteenth-century explorers and scholars described African beliefs and customs regarding the dead in terms of ancestor worship. Recent studies have shown that the relationship between the living and their ancestors varies

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However, death, grief and ancestry among African peoples are always complex. Some scholars describe such relationships as respect rather than worship. This view is rooted in the notion that families and communities are shaped by those who have gone before. The dead continue to have importance and authority as long as they are remembered and honored by the living. The living, in turn, are judged by how well and faithfully they fulfill their duties to their ancestors.

* Genealogy Ancestry

family history; recording from

See Color Plate 4, Vol. 3.

ancestors in everyday life. The Lugbara of Central Africa believe that their lavish and very public funerals are an essential part of a transformation that begins at death: the turning of the deceased into a spirit whose name will be remembered by descendants. Rituals for the dead can span a period of years. The Lugbara plant fig trees at the graves of important elders and can assemble small stone slabs into "houses" to honor the dead. The trees and stones are shrines where people can consult their ancestors. Over time, the most ancient ancestors lose their attachment to a specific place and are considered part of the creator deity. Shrines, family histories and genealogies* make ancestors a familiar presence in everyday life across much of sub-Saharan Africa. The living interact with the dead in different places and in different ways. Hereditary property, called 'tears of the dead' in ZIMBABWE, provides a link to ancestors. The Nzima of Ghana consider long-term projects such as orchards and plantations to be the work of the dead, lasting through generations. Children are named after ancestors, and it is sometimes believed that the spirits of the ancestors are reincarnated in the young. African Muslims honor their ancestors with rituals. Some people perform a ceremony each year that is believed to open the passage between the living and the dead. In exchange for the prayers of the living, the dead return their blessings. Not every dead person is honored as an ancestor - as someone whose identity contributes to the social position of the descendants. There is a rank among the dead as there is among the living. Unmarried or childless individuals, the very poor, orphans, ex-slaves, criminals, suicides, and people who died "bad" deaths or from certain "bad" diseases such as leprosy are unlikely to be remembered as ancestors. Someone who didn't bury a parent "well" is seen as stupid or useless, and is likely to be forgotten as well. Ancestors and beliefs about them appear in many expressions of African cultures. Some West African stories, for example, depict a type of wayward or unruly spirit that keeps reappearing as a newborn child, only to return to the spirit world again. Such beliefs are not limited to literature. Nigerian author Chinua ACHEBE began writing about this spirit after hearing a 16-year-old girl talk about her experiences. He described the pain and confusion she felt at being treated like a living person who could disappear into the spirit world at any moment. ancestors and politics. At different times and places in African history, death and descent have become political tools. One of the most effective ways to deprive a group of its place in society, aside from enslavement, is to restrict its members' ability to conduct funerals and

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De Klerk, Frederik Willem Mourning Rituals. African governments and societies have done this by enforcing different burial laws for different populations. In some societies, "proper" burials can be so expensive that poor people cannot afford them. Without these important ties to the rest of the community and to other generations, the poor are seen as having no past or future. Africans have responded to this situation by establishing funeral societies, which date back to when they began moving to the cities in the early 20th century. The members of these societies pool their resources and contributions to provide one another with “proper” burials that meet the standards of their culture. Some African political movements in the 1800s and 1900s invoked ancestral figures. They are said to have inspired many prophets or leaders of uprisings or crusades against colonial rule. For example, in the 1850s, a young XHOSA woman named NONGQAWUSE caused quite a stir in SOUTH AFRICA. Claiming to speak for her people's ancestors, she ordered the Xhosa to sacrifice all their livestock to end their strife and regain strength. They followed her advice and became very poor. Burial has also become a political issue in the fight for the corpses of well-known personalities. One such struggle took place in Uganda in the 1970s. To win the favor of the Ganda people, General Idi AMIN DADA brought back the body of their former ruler from Britain where he had died. Amin then held a public viewing of the body and a grand state funeral. However, when the ruler's heir tried to strengthen his own claim to office by burying the body in the royal tomb of Ganda, Amin Dada dismissed the action as a pointless ritual. Of course, the action was not pointless. It was an example of the meaning that death, grief and heritage have for many Africans. (See also Ethnic Groups and Identity, Islam in Africa, Kinship, Religion and Ritual, Spirit Possession.)

De De Klerk, Klerk, Frederik Frederik Willem Willem 1936– South African political leader

rederik Willem De Klerk was President of SOUTH AFRICA from 1989 to 1994. He was the driving force behind government efforts to end the country's official system of racial discrimination known as APARTHEID. De Klerk grew up in a political environment. His father was Cabinet Minister and President of the South African Senate. After graduating from university, De Klerk became a lawyer and was active in the National Party. He was twice elected to Parliament in the early 1970s and later held several cabinet posts in the national government. Early in his political career, De Klerk supported traditional policies that restricted the rights and freedoms of black people in South Africa. Gradually, however, he changed his political views and, as president, introduced a new approach to dealing with the country's racial conflicts. Instead of consulting the military on political matters, as previous leaders had done, he sought advice from civilians. He also allowed peaceful demonstrations by opponents of apartheid.

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De Klerk, Friedrich Wilhelm

See Color Plate 11, Vol. 1.

deserts and drought

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

See Color Plate 15, Vol. 2.

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Shortly after his election as president, De Klerk released eight members of the banned African National Congress (ANC) from prison. Over the next few months he began talks with the ANC, the South African Communist Party and other political groups about South Africa's future. One of his most important steps was the release of Nelson MANDELA, who had spent more than 20 years in prison for fighting the apartheid regime. In the early 1990s, De Klerk represented the incumbent government at the Convention for a Democratic South Africa, a meeting that laid the foundations for a post-apartheid state. After resigning as president in 1994, he accepted a position in the government of national unity, which oversaw the country's transition to full democracy. De Klerk boldly pushed through reforms that led to a new political order in South Africa in which citizens' opportunities would no longer be determined by their race. He did so despite knowing that his efforts would result in him and his party losing their immense political power. De Klerk shared the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize with Nelson Mandela for his work to end apartheid and grant full civil rights to South Africa's black majority.

frica contains two desert regions, the SAHARA DESERT in the north and the Namib-Kalahari region in the southwest. Traditionally, very few people have lived in the deserts of Africa. However, some groups inhabit the semi-arid areas bordering deserts—areas that are slightly wetter than the desert. The well-being of these people depends on the rainfall, which varies greatly from year to year. Covering approximately 3.3 million square miles, the Sahara is the largest desert in the world. Its extreme aridity (less than about 5 inches of rainfall per year) has long made it a barrier between the Mediterranean world and sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, nomads and traders have traversed this impressive desert over the centuries. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky or gravel plains with several large mountain massifs. About 20 percent of the desert is covered by seas of loose sand called ergs, which form "living" dunes. Moved and shaped by the wind, these dunes reach heights of more than 500 feet. The SAHEL, a semi-arid region on the southern border of the Sahara, contains large areas of ancient ergs with "dead" dunes held in place by vegetation. The Sahel generally receives 4 to 8 inches of rainfall annually. The Namib is Africa's only true desert south of the equator. It stretches along the Atlantic coast for 1,240 miles in a long narrow band. The driest part of the desert on the coast receives less than half an inch of rain per year, although moisture from fog and humidity supports some plants and animals. To the east lies the KALAHARI DESERT, a vast and featureless red sand plain that is more of a semi-arid region than a desert. Before the Europeans conquered the continent, the Africans had learned to cope with the climate of desert and semi-arid regions. Small, nomadic populations inhabited many dry areas. brought European colonial rule

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deserts and drought

Low vegetation and rocky ground cover this desert region in Niger.

fixed national borders that made it difficult for nomads to move freely. Since the mid-20th century, as Africa's population has grown, many people have moved to crowded urban centers. As the best agricultural land is already occupied, others have migrated to drier and less fertile areas such as the Sahel. This population movement has resulted in more Africans facing drought and desertification – the spreading or creation of a desert-like landscape. Drought is a prolonged period of reduced precipitation or altered precipitation patterns, such as when rain falls at the wrong time of year for local crops. In modern times, the western Sahel has experienced three major droughts: 1910–1914, 1941–1943, and 1968–1985. Devastating droughts also hit southern, eastern and north-eastern Africa. Some

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Deserts and droughts have led to severe food shortages and famine, effects that will be exacerbated as Africa's population continues to increase. Drought also contributes to the problem of desertification. Sometimes climate changes cause an existing desert to expand. At other times, land takes on the characteristics of a desert when the soil becomes less fertile or begins to erode rapidly. Human activities such as felling trees or plowing up natural vegetation to hold the soil in place can also lead to desertification. The process was most evident in West Africa's Sahel region, particularly in the years following the drought that began in 1968. (See also climate, ecosystems.)

development, economy and social affairs

In general, development refers to a process by which countries use their natural and human resources to improve the economy and the lives of their people. Many experts also study development in terms of its outcomes—the outcomes achieved through economic, political, and social programs. As a complex concept, development encompasses economic measures such as income and economic production, political measures such as civil rights and liberties, and social measures such as literacy and public health. In terms of development, Africa lags dramatically behind most of the world.

THE CHALLENGE OF DEVELOPMENT Development is not just a matter of building factories, improving farmland, or investing in new technology. This also includes offering all citizens opportunities to participate in economic and political activities and to benefit from them. This aspect of development has presented particular challenges to many African nations over the past 40 years.

* Sector

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Part; subdivision of society

Trends in African development. During the colonial period, the European powers carried out various improvement projects in their African territories. They built roads, railroads and airports, expanded cities and ports and founded schools. In the years immediately after independence, most African nations took their cues from their former colonial masters. Economically, this meant building an industrial society that could produce material wealth like Europe and the United States. Government was seen as the institution best placed to carry out these tasks, and development activities were centralized within African national governments. Most African nations at this time began large-scale projects aimed at boosting specific sectors* of the economy, such as mining or manufacturing. Government experts decided what needed to be done and how to do it. The general population has had little involvement in the planning or implementation of development projects. By the mid-1960s, however, it had become clear that this development approach was not working. Wealthy and educated people tended to benefit from development projects, while the majority of the population did not.

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Development, Economic and Social The Misery Index The United Nations produces an annual report that measures growth in each nation by examining a wide range of social and economic factors. Based on this report, the United Nations then publishes a "Misery Index" that ranks the poorest and most disadvantaged nations in the world. For 2000, 30 of the 35 nations at the bottom of the index were in sub-Saharan Africa. The 10 worst-off countries were all in Africa, led by Sierra Leone, which has suffered from the ongoing civil war. The UN report emphasizes that political freedom is crucial to achieving economic progress, noting that a number of nations at the bottom of the list - including Burundi, Chad and Niger - are military dictatorships.

* Nationalization, to bring land, industry, or public works under government control or ownership. * Infrastructure The backbone of a society and its economy, which includes roads, bridges, docks, airports and other public works

In the next phase of development, African nations began to emphasize resource redistribution. The aim was to make vital resources such as land and access to technology more widely available. Lower-level officials were given greater freedom to make decisions and implement policies. Projects designed and overseen by central government planners gave way to programs tailored to local needs and priorities. In the 1970s, Western economists identified government as the main obstacle to effective development. They said governments are trying to do too much, to get too big and to create too many regulations. Many nations introduced reforms that reduced the size of their governments, cut welfare benefits, sold nationalized* industries, and eliminated policies that protected local businesses from foreign competition. Such measures helped stabilize currencies and increase market efficiency, but also led to cuts in social benefits and money invested in the country's infrastructure*. In many African countries, the level of development actually declined during this period. Since the 1980s, economists have placed more emphasis on the role of the individual in development. Local programs created and implemented by individuals, families and community groups are now seen as powerful sources of change. In addition, international organizations and nations that have lent money to African countries for development are putting increasing pressure on African governments to change the way they operate. One thing they demanded was the establishment of more democratic forms of government. In recent years, more open government has been seen as the key to development in Africa. development models. African nations have several development models to follow. Some prefer a system of Western capitalism - where the market determines what goods and services are needed and private companies provide those goods and services. Other nations have adopted a socialist system - with the government setting priorities and creating state institutions to achieve its goals. So far, no single development model has proven best for all countries at all times. Since many African nations are highly indebted to other countries and international credit institutions, these lenders have a great deal of influence over which models borrower countries adopt. A major question facing African nations is whether they should attempt to be self-sufficient and produce all the goods they need locally, or whether they should rely on the international market for certain goods. Some countries have looked beyond national borders and joined forces with neighboring countries to create regional development plans.

DEVELOPMENT AND REFORM In the early years of independence, many African nations took steps to control their economies and create jobs for their people. They created state industries and passed laws that protected those industries from foreign competitors. They also greatly expanded the government's role in developing infrastructure and social services. Many government

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Development, economic and social workers install a water pipe in Ethiopia. Access to water supplies can improve public health and increase agricultural productivity.

* recession

* Inflation

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economic slowdown

increase in prices

Financial institutions borrowed heavily to fund these development plans, but much of that money was lost to mismanagement and corruption. In the 1980s, global economic developments - a severe recession* and very high interest rates - worsened the situation for troubled African nations. As their debts mounted, African leaders turned to institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to refinance their loans. To qualify for debt relief, borrowers had to undergo "structural adjustment." This meant reforms aimed at reducing government spending and control over the economy, encouraging private enterprise growth, and easing trade restrictions to allow foreign firms to compete with local firms. It was hoped that these measures would reduce inflation*, make markets more efficient and boost long-term economic growth. This in turn should improve social and economic conditions. The success of the structural adjustment programs has been mixed. Many experts agree that they have helped stabilize local African markets

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Development, economic and social economy, but they did not promote long-term growth. Some experts argue that structural adjustment actually hampers development, cutting government funding for infrastructure and education improvements necessary for sustained long-term growth. In addition, the expected advances in agriculture and industry did not materialize. Again, critics allege that development in these sectors of the economy has been hampered by poor transport and roads, poor access to credit and poor education - all areas where funding has been cut under structural adjustment programs.

EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC AID * Capital invested to start a business or industry

* Cold War era with strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II

According to early development theories, the best way to encourage growth was to increase the amount of capital* in a country and plan carefully how to invest it. The rationale was that outside financial help would allow people in developing countries to buy goods and services while saving money. This aid would also provide revenue for the nation until its economy is strong enough to make money from foreign trade. Unfortunately, this theory did not work as hoped in Africa. Their failure can be explained in part by the fact that during the Cold War* financial aid was often given for political rather than economic reasons. In many cases, aid went to nations deemed strategically important, not necessarily to those most in need. By the early 1990s, various financial institutions had begun to emphasize programs that were run at the local level rather than coordinated by the central government. However, for such programs to work, local people had to learn the skills needed to run the programs themselves. Unfortunately, at the same time, technical assistance decreased and assistance for long-term projects was increasingly replaced by short-term assistance. This made it more difficult for the local population to gain the ability to operate on their own. International donors also stressed that in order to receive aid in the future, African states would have to develop more democratic and efficient forms of government and change their economic policies. However, the firing of government employees or the ending of protections for local businesses can lead to political unrest. As a result, African governments often resist such changes and lose their entitlement to international aid. This new lending policy has helped reduce aid to Africa.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE Community development is a different approach to development. It combines central government funding and services with local citizen participation. Community development goals are modest compared to large service programs. These include digging new wells, improving local sanitation, increasing literacy, and other minor works. Community development programs have had some successes in Africa, but have also encountered problems. Perhaps the most serious was

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Development, economic and social that the government programs and their directors often came into conflict with local officials, who viewed the programs as a challenge to their authority and viewed the directors as political rivals. Since the programs did not produce much progress, international aid organizations and central governments in many countries lost enthusiasm for community development. In a number of cases, community development programs have been taken over by the central government. The success of community development programs largely depends on a close working relationship between central and local governments. Local governments must have a high degree of autonomy to set priorities and decide how to achieve goals. They also need to control their own budgets and resources to pursue their goals. Some African countries have relatively independent local governments. In many others, however, local governments are merely an extension of central government and lack the power to set goals and depend on central government for money and resources. Many African countries lost faith in the idea of establishing local governments and sharing power with the central government. Some replaced a system in which the central government appointed local officials and controlled their policies and budgets. As Africa's economies declined, this system was abandoned and some countries reverted to more independent local governments. Recently, many local African communities have started to take development into their own hands, often with little or no government help. A new model is emerging where communities plan their own programs and provide the people to run them, while local government provides financial support. This approach cannot provide large-scale development—like road, building, or utility maintenance—but it is changing accepted ways of thinking about the role of people and government in development.

Diagne, Blaise 1872–1934 Senegalese politician

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he Senegalese politician Blaise Diagne was the first African to be elected as a deputy to the French National Assembly in Paris. Like all Africans born in Senegal during the colonial period, Diagne was an originaire - a French citizen with certain limited rights. Educated in France and at the University of Saint-Louis in Senegal, he worked in Africa for the French customs service. In 1914, Diagne was elected to represent Senegal in the National Assembly. He vowed to crack down on taxes and laws that are harsh on the Senegalese and to clarify the rights of originaires. Shortly after Diagne took his seat in the National Assembly, World War I broke out and the French needed soldiers. Diagne offered to help recruit originaires into the armed forces if they were granted full rights as French citizens. The government agreed to his demands. By 1918, Diagne had recruited 60,000 originaires. In return, the French built veterans' hospitals, agricultural schools and a medical school in Senegal. Diagne was re-elected overwhelmingly in 1919. Concerned about Diagne's growing power, the French authorities began to work against him and

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Diaspora, African He lost the 1923 election. Despite this, Diagne remained in politics, serving as Under-Secretary of State for the French colonies in the 1930s. In Senegal, some saw Diagne as a hero, while others felt that the lives lost in the war and his compromises with the French were not worth the benefits he gained for the colony. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Government and Political Systems, World Wars I and II.)

DIAMONDS

Diaspora, diaspora, African African

See map in Slave Trade (Volume 4).

See Minerals and Mining.

Today, Africans and their descendants can be found on every inhabited continent. African traditions have influenced religion and art, and popular music around the world owes much to African rhythms and musical styles. This global presence is largely due to the African diaspora – a movement of people of African descent to areas outside their homeland. The story of the African diaspora has three parts: dispersal, settling abroad, and returning to Africa. When dispersing or spreading, people left Africa for other parts of the world. Some went voluntarily, but many did not. Dispersal was fueled by a SLAVE TRADE run by Arabs, Europeans and Americans who forced enslaved Africans to leave their homes and move to other areas. The second part of the diaspora, settlement abroad, concerns the life of Africans and their descendants in their new lands - including their relationships with people of other races and their legal, social and economic position in society. Some scattered Africans - and people of African descent - did return to Africa. Many of them played a leading role in the social and political development of the continent. Others never set foot in Africa, but they drew on the idea of their ancestral homeland for their personal identity or for cultural or political purposes. Africans in Africa and those who are a product of the Diaspora share the legacy of the slave trade and the domination of other peoples who saw themselves as superior. Both in Africa and around the world, Africans have responded to this history of slavery and racial subjugation and persecution by striving to preserve their own identity and by demanding freedom, independence and equality.

AFRICANS IN ASIA AND EUROPE For centuries, Africans have settled in different parts of Asia and Europe in a dispersal that has included both voluntary migrations and forced movements as a result of enslavement. Asia. In ancient times, Africans traveled the Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean as merchants, seafarers, soldiers, adventurers and slaves. Ethiopian traders settled in the Arabian Peninsula.

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Diaspora, Africans Recovering a Lost Past A CD-ROM database recently released by Louisiana State University Press contains information on more than 100,000 people sold into slavery in Georgia and Louisiana in the 17th and 18th centuries. The data is the result of 15 years of work by a New Orleans researcher. It was compiled by trawling through records in Louisiana, Texas, France and Spain to look for the names, African birthplaces and abilities of men, women and children once nameless and forgotten. Similar databases on disk and on the internet help African Americans trace family histories. Scholars use such databases to study links between the African origins of enslaved individuals and the cultures they created in America.

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sula and in the Persian Gulf region long before these areas became part of the Roman Empire. Africans were brought to Arabia and Persia as slaves. In the 500s AD, the Ethiopian king Ella-Asbaha occupied parts of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, leaving some people behind. People of African slave descent living in Arabia, the Persian Gulf region and India became known as Siddis and Habshis. Some modern historians have found evidence that the Arabs and Persians of these regions greatly despised the Africans and treated them as inferior. Several men of African descent became poets known as the crows of the Arabs. One of them, an African slave named Abu Dulama, whose poetry was known throughout the Arab world by the 7th century, described Arab society's view of his fellow black citizens: “We are of the same color; our faces are black and ugly, our names are shameful.” Africans sometimes rebelled against their low status. In the part of the Arab world that is now Iraq, enslaved Africans led freedom movements in 694 and again in 868. The second uprising led to the creation of an independent state called Dawlat al-Zanj, which survived for 15 years. Over time, communities of free and enslaved Africans emerged in many Arab and Indian cities. Africans worked as merchants, longshoremen, clerks and farmhands. Enslaved Africans also appeared in China, being brought there by Arab traders in the 650s. However, most of the enslaved Africans in Asia were resettled in India, where they worked as guards, soldiers, and sailors. Some rose to high positions in the armies or governments of various Indian states. The life stories of some Africans in Asia are well known. One of them, Malik Ambar, was captured in Ethiopia by Muslim Arab slave traders and sold in Baghdad, Iraq. There he learned Arabic and became an employee. It was later sold to Indians who took it to central India. He became a soldier, organized a revolt and took control of the Indian state of Ahmadnagar. He reigned from 1601 to 1626 and employed Africans, Arabs, Persians and Indians at his court. During his reign, Ambar founded cities, built canals and roads, and promoted trade, science, and the arts. He also joined forces with other Siddis against Indian and European enemies. By the 1500s, Europeans were competing with the Arabs for trade in goods and slaves in Asia. Arab ships took Africans to the most remote corners of Asia, including Indonesia, China and Japan. Europeans began abolishing the slave trade in the 19th century, but Arab traders continued to transport slaves from ports like ZANZIBAR in East Africa to Arab and Asian markets. By 1830, the city of Karachi in modern-day Pakistan was importing about 1,500 African slaves each year. Some of these Africans became famous. Zahur Shah Hashmi and Murad Sahir became well-known poets, and Mohamed Siddiq Mussafar wrote a compelling eyewitness account of the slave trade and the lives of enslaved Africans in Pakistan. Mussafar praised the achievements and hopes of African Americans like Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington who fought for black liberty and dignity. His poem "Africa's Gift" recognized the global presence of people of African descent and their contributions to other societies.

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Diaspora, African

For hundreds of years, slave traders captured large numbers of Africans and transported them overseas in ships like the one shown here.

*medieval refers to the Middle Ages in western Europe, generally ranging from 500 to 1500 AD

Free Africans continued to settle in Asia through the early 1800s. Some were merchants. Others accompanied Asians for whom they had worked in East Africa. Like earlier African migrants, they adopted various aspects of Asian culture while also retaining some of their own. In parts of Pakistan, Habshis still celebrate the Waghu Mela, or crocodile festival, which has African roots. In scattered areas of India, people speak SWAHILI, the commercial language of East Africa. Europe. In ancient times, trade relations between Europeans and Africans developed around North African cities, attracting merchants from SUDAN, the Sahara region and the Nile Valley. These early trade contacts led to the migration of Europeans to Africa and Africans to Europe. Enslavement also played a role in the migration of Africans to the Mediterranean. The ancient Greeks and Romans, like the Egyptians, held the Africans in bondage. The African presence in Europe increased after the 7th century AD, when Muslim Arabs from North Africa invaded and occupied Spain. The Muslims ruled the Mediterranean until the 15th century. During this period, Arabs and Europeans traded in African slaves. During the Middle Ages*, a number of Africans settled along stretches of the northern Mediterranean coast and on Mediterranean islands such as Sicily. Free and enslaved Ethiopians also visited and lived in medieval Europe. ETHIOPIA, a Christian state since AD 400, sought ties with European Christians, and the Europeans sought an alliance with Ethiopia against the Muslims. During the Middle Ages, a

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650s Arab traders bring Africans to China.

1440 Portugal begins the slave trade.

1500s First enslaved Africans brought to America by Spanish.

1772 British court outlaws slavery.

1787 Sierra Leone founded as a home for freed slaves.

1800s European nations abolish slavery.

1804 Haitian independence.

1821 Establishment of Liberia as a haven for freed slaves.

Scores of Ethiopians visited Italy, Spain and Portugal, and Ethiopian officials spoke at several important church conferences in Europe. The greatest dispersal of Africans to Europe began when Europeans began exploring the world in the 14th century. Europeans formed direct links to the caravan trade in gold in the SAHARA DESERT, which led to greater numbers of Africans visiting and settling in European cities. Some of them became interpreters and guides for Europeans exploring Africa. The Portuguese, disappointed with the amount of gold they were getting from the African trade, began trading African slaves in the 1440s. Soon both enslaved and free Africans were working in farms, mines, workshops and armies in Portugal and Spain. English navigator William Hawkins' voyage to West Africa in 1530 led to an increase in the number of Africans in England. In 1556, Queen Elizabeth I complained that there were too many "black auras" in the country and suggested bringing them back to Africa. By the 1800s the African population in England had increased to about 15,000. Many of them were poor and unwanted. The number of Africans living in France increased as the French share of the slave trade increased. France didn't officially allow slavery, but it cropped up there anyway. Africans were also found in Italy, Eastern Europe, Turkey and Russia, although little is known about the African diaspora in these areas. The situation of Africans in Europe was precarious. Although the laws of Europe did not recognize slavery, the European colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas did. As a result, enslaved Africans brought from the colonies to Britain and France were often kept as slaves in Europe. This situation lasted until 1772, when a British court ruled that Africans could no longer be legally kept as slaves in Britain. In the early 1800s, European nations outlawed and gradually ended the slave trade and changed the legal status of all Africans in Europe to free people. Before that time, not all Africans in Europe had been enslaved. Some African students lived there, especially after the mid-17th century when African rulers began sending their sons to schools in Europe to learn the language and commercial skills needed to do business with Europeans. Some of these students became involved in the European abolitionist movement. One, Ottoban Cugano, wrote a book entitled Thoughts and Feelings Concerning the Wicked and Evil Intercourse of Slavery and Trade in the Human Species (1787), which sparked debate about the slave trade.

AFRICANS IN AMERICA 1888 Brazil ends the slave trade.

Africans came to America with the Europeans. Africans have been present since the early days of European exploration of North, Central and South America. However, it was the slave trade that led to the largest movement of Africans to the Americas. As a result of this forced migration and subsequent waves of immigration, millions of Africans came to the Western Hemisphere. Today, the majority of people in Panama, Barbados, Haiti, and Jamaica are of African descent, but Brazil and the United States have the largest African American populations. In

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Diaspora, African to varying degrees, the African diaspora has played a role in shaping the social, cultural and political fabric of all these places. African migrations. Around 1800 an estimated 10 million Africans lived in America. Most were enslaved Africans and children born to them in captivity. About 2 million African Americans lived in the United States, and that number doubled by the late 19th century. Another 2 to 3 million lived in Brazil, which continued the slave trade until 1888. By this time, Brazil's African population had increased by millions. Most Africans brought to America by the slave trade came from the region between present-day GHANA and CAMEROON and from the area around the CONGO RIVER estuary. However, smaller numbers of Africans also came from the east coast of the African continent, long dominated by the Arab slave trade and colonized by the Portuguese. Africans were usually captured by African kings, sold to slave traders, and packed onto ships bound for the Americas. Some shiploads contained enslaved Africans who spoke the same or related languages, were from the same areas, or belonged to the same ethnic groups. This enabled communication among the prisoners and in some cases led to acts of resistance such as ship revolts. Records of these mutinies show that prisoners sometimes spent days planning them. Occasionally, African women serving as cooks on the ships would help prisoners plan their mutinies by sharing information they had gathered from the European crew.

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small groups of warriors

A new culture. Amid the horrors of slave ships and perilous voyages across the Atlantic, Africans formed friendships that lasted as far back as America's system of slavery. These relationships marked the beginning of a new culture that blended elements from different African homelands that would endure and evolve during the slavery era and beyond. In the 1600s and 1700s, blacks adopted the terms African and Ethiopian as identifying marks. Slave masters renamed Africans, but many people tried to keep their original names. Although American laws made it a crime to speak African languages and practice African religions and customs, many enslaved people did so in private moments. However, over time, Africans learned the European languages spoken in America and adopted some elements of European culture. Africans in America were united by the relationships formed on slave ships and by the continued use of their languages and customs. These ties provided a strong base for liberation movements, which sometimes led to uprisings or the establishment of communities for fugitive slaves. In the 1500s, a black community called Coyula emerged in Mexico; In 1603, black pearl divers revolted in Venezuela. In the French colony of Haiti, the struggle for freedom of enslaved Africans reflected the connection between African and Western cultures. It began in 1791 when an African named Boukman attracted a group of loyal followers and succeeded in turning the Africans against the slave owners. Toussaint L'Ouverture, a Haitian-born African, joined Boukman and organized a guerrilla* war. The war led to Haiti's independence in

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Diaspora, African

* Nationalism Devotion to the interests and culture of one's own country

* Abolitionist person dedicated to ending slavery

* ritual religious ceremony that follows a set pattern

* Divination practice that looks into the future, usually by supernatural means

1804. As the second independent American republic in the Western Hemisphere (after the United States), Haiti became a symbol of African freedom in the diaspora. These freedom movements reveal the beginnings of African nationalism* in America. The Africans didn't just want revenge or escape from slavery. They sought control over their communities to further their own values, goals, and traditions. Africans in America made enormous contributions to the economic development of their countries and also fought for justice. Some became spokespeople for the idea of a greater African identity and, like African-American abolitionist* Frederick Douglass, even traveled abroad to promote freedom for blacks in other parts of the world. African institutions. As Africans adapted to life in America, they established churches, schools, and other organizations analogous to those of European-American society. Scholars are still studying the history of these institutions to see how far they have absorbed African ideas and traditions and how much they have been influenced by European models. African culture shaped many aspects of life in black communities in America. Place names, language patterns, proverbs and folk tales, ways of preparing food, styles of decoration, personal adornments, beliefs and ritual* practices are some examples. Areas that once had widespread slave-based plantation economies, such as the Caribbean and southeastern United States, are the historical heartland of African-influenced culture. However, influence has spread far beyond this heartland due to the movement of African descendants after the Civil War and more recent international migrations. In addition, non-Africans have adopted elements of African style and culture. Scholars have identified certain aspects of culture in America as African. For example, the divination systems* known as Santería in Cuba and Candomblé in Brazil are so similar to the practices of the YORUBA people of NIGERIA that the African connection is clear. But other aspects of African-American culture don't easily connect to African sources. For example, scholars have long debated whether some types of African-American social organization, such as mother-centered families, are holdovers of African traditions or were shaped by American conditions. In addition, blacks in America have sometimes “re-Africanized” themselves by seeking contact with or knowledge of Africa in order to strengthen their sense of African identity. Religion. Across America, religion reflects various forms of African influence. Many of the Africans who came to America worshiped local gods and ancestors. Others were Christians, and some practiced hybrid religions, mixing Christian elements with traditional African beliefs. These people and their American descendants created a complex religious heritage that includes specifically African beliefs and African influence on other religions. Some religions in America are distinctly African in their beliefs and practices - Candomblé in Brazil and Sèvi Iwa (voodoo) in Haiti.

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Diaspora, African The Million Man March, held in Washington, D.C. in 1995 took place, attracted more than 800,000 participants. It aimed to promote unity and spiritual renewal among African Americans.

The gods of these religions have recognizable counterparts in African societies. African-inspired forms of ancestor worship continue to be practiced on Caribbean islands and among the descendants of escaped slaves in the South American state of Suriname. The European influence was also strong. In parts of America colonized by Catholics from Europe, Africans often came to identify their gods with Catholic saints and to use some Catholic symbols and rituals. Most Candomblé and Santería practitioners also consider themselves Roman Catholic. Additionally, some adherents of Candomblé and other African-inspired religions claim Native American sources for their practices.

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Diaspora, African

* sub-Saharan refers to sub-Saharan Africa

African influences also appear in American religions that do not see themselves as specifically African. For example, in various African American Protestant churches, the importance of dancing and being "filled with the Holy Spirit" can be viewed as versions of African sacred dance and POSSESSION OF SPIRIT. Religious practices are among the visible contributions of sub-Saharan Africa* to American civilization. Yet many African elements have been touched and transformed by European and Native American practices and beliefs. In a process that began centuries ago with the arrival of the first Africans on the shores of the Americas, these diverse traditions—African, European, and American—constantly combine and influence each other in different ways.

THE RETURN TO AFRICA

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Africans in the diaspora stayed connected to Africa, and many longed to return. Scores of Africans lost their lives trying to resist capture in their homeland, in mutinies on slave ships, or in revolts against enslavement. However, some succeeded and they returned to their families in Africa. Still others returned as businessmen, teachers, and missionaries. An early phase of the return to Africa began in Britain. By the late 1700s, this country's growing black population included many freed slaves from the United States who had fought for the British during the American Revolution. Abolitionists developed the idea of settling these and other black people in Africa. The hope was that the returning Africans would found a society that would promote Christianity, the abolition of the slave trade, and Western principles of government. In 1787 a group of more than 400 Africans left Britain to found SIERRA LEONE, and by the mid-19th century their descendants had brought the country's population to about 70,000. Many of the residents were former prisoners freed from slave traders by the British. There arose a group of people known as the KREOLE, mixing Western and African beliefs, customs and languages. As teachers, missionaries, and employees of colonial governments, Creoles extended the influence of the diaspora to much of West Africa. Free Africans in the United States made their own plans to return to Africa. The US Navy confiscated American slave ships and delivered their cargo to the African colony of LIBERIA, founded in 1821. In 1870 Liberia had more than 20,000 settlers. The majority came from the United States, and they modeled their political and social institutions on the American model. With the declaration of independence in 1847, Liberia became the second African nation to gain international recognition (after Ethiopia) and the first whose leaders were part of the African diaspora. In both Sierra Leone and Liberia, the descendants of the returned Africans established governments that ruled over the indigenous* populations. As in the European colonies of Africa, the indigenous peoples were treated as inferior. Several prominent African Americans went to Liberia and made significant contributions there. One of them, Edward BLYDEN, emphasized the importance of African languages and cultures and developed ideas for blending African and Western cultures.

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Dingiswayo People of African descent from Brazil, Cuba, the Arabian Peninsula and India also returned to Africa during the 19th century. In modern times, a two-way movement developed, with diaspora Africans returning to Africa and people from Africa migrating to other nations to work or study. These connections contributed to a global sense of African identity and helped inspire the independence movements in Africa in the mid-20th century.

AFRICAN CULTURAL INFLUENCES OUTSIDE AFRICA African traditions, spread by the diaspora, have influenced world culture in a variety of ways, most notably in art and music. Artistic influences, particularly art forms created by people of African descent in the Americas, range from African-style painting and sculpture, Yoruba-style masks carved in Brazil, and a Cuban tradition of costumed dance reflecting the rituals of many peoples of West Africa. However, Africa's greatest influence on world culture has been music. In America, African traditions have spawned many new forms of music, such as black gospel, blues, jazz, calypso in Trinidad and the West Indies, reggae in Jamaica, and samba in Brazil. African American music was recorded in the 1920s. By the mid-20th century, vinyl records had made their way to Africa, where they inspired urban musicians to adopt some African-American styles and mix them with traditional African styles. African musicians have continued to borrow from African American music. In turn, American and European pop musicians have adopted the sounds of African pop music. Today Africa is part of the pop music world. The influence of African and Afro-American music has shaped much of modern jazz, rock 'n' roll, and popular music. (See also Art; Dance; Ethnic Groups and Identity; History of Africa; Early Humans; Music and Song; Negritude; Refugees; Religion and Ritual.)

Dingiswayo Dingiswayo 1770–1816 Chief of the Nguni Confederacy

Ingiswayo was the last chief of the Nguni Confederacy in southern Africa before Europeans colonized the area. According to legend, Dingiswayo became chief by killing his brother, believing that his brother was not the rightful ruler. After taking power, Dingiswayo combined several related kingdoms into a unified confederation. He then appointed sub-chiefs from those kingdoms to help him oversee the unification. Dingiswayo also instituted a military system in which young men preparing to become warriors spent a great deal of time together before their initiation. His goal was to create a sense of brotherhood among warriors that would make them trusted companions in campaigns. One of those brought up under this system was Shaka, the son of the ZULU chief. After the chief died, Dingiswayo sent Shaka to claim the Zulu throne. In 1816, Dingiswayo was killed by a supporter of one of the sub-chiefs, and the Confederacy began to fall apart. Shaka later assumed the office of chief and unified the Confederacy under his own leadership. (See also Shaka Zulu, Southern Africa, History.)

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Diop, Alioune

Diop, Diop, Alioune Alioune 1910–1980 writers and cultural leaders * Ideology-set of concepts or opinions held by a person or group

Diop, Cheikh Anta 1923–1986 African scholar and political leader

* Carbon-14 dating method for determining the age of ancient objects by measuring the decay of radioactive carbon

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he Senegalese writer Alioune Diop played an important role in changing the way the French-speaking world saw Africa. Born and raised in SENEGAL, Diop worked as a professor and represented the colony in the French Senate. In 1947 he founded Présence africaine, which became the most influential French-language magazine on Africa. In Présence africaine, Diop tried to reshape the European image of Africa and to emphasize the continent's importance in world affairs. Diop feared that Africa was all but invisible in world politics and that its people had been "disinherited" by other world leaders. His goal was to completely redefine the role of the African continent on the world stage. The magazine consistently attacked colonialism without identifying with any particular philosophy or ideology*. In addition to his work as a writer and journalist, Diop was active in the promotion of African literature and art in the Société Africaine de Culture, which he founded. He also played an important role in organizing the first and second International Congresses of Black Writers and Artists (1956 and 1959), the first World Festival of Negro Arts (1966), and the Festival of Black and African Arts and Culture (1977). (See also Publish.)

Heikh Anta Diop was an accomplished pro-independence historian, physicist, archaeologist, and linguist who explored the roots of African culture and civilization. Born to a Muslim family in SENEGAL and raised in both Africa and France, Diop had an unusual background for studying Africa's colonial experience. While studying in Paris, Diop became involved in the anti-colonial movement and helped organize the first Pan-African Student Conference in 1951. He also began researching the origins of civilization in Africa. He wrote a doctoral thesis arguing that ancient Egypt was a black African civilization. It took nine years for the Sorbonne - France's most prestigious university - to assemble a jury of scholars to assess the thesis that earned Diop his doctorate in 1960. Diop then returned to Senegal, where he set up a laboratory for carbon-14 dating* and founded several political parties. Diop dedicated his academic and literary career to defining African identity, which had been shattered by years of European colonial rule. His books trace Africa's contributions to classical Greek culture and examine the relationship between Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Egyptian religious thought. He argued that the European colonizers were racist and violent because they came from male-dominated societies. According to Diop, women-centric societies — which he claimed originated in Africa — were more human. He believed that together Africans could repeat the great achievements of their distant past. Diop received many honors during his lifetime, and at the first World Festival of Negro Arts in 1966 he was named one of the two scholars "who had the greatest influence on Negro thought in the 20th century". (See also Africa, study by; Egypt, Negritude.)

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Diseases

Abundance and a lack of adequate health services have made disease a particularly serious problem across Africa. Africans struggle with many of the same diseases that affect people in other parts of the world. They suffer from infectious diseases like measles, lifestyle-related diseases like cancer and heart disease, and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). However, the social and economic conditions in Africa make the treatment and prevention of these diseases more of a problem than in more affluent industrialized countries. In addition, certain diseases are unique to Africa and various factors such as climate and traditional lifestyles make them particularly difficult to control.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

* Vector organism that transports disease-causing substances from one body to another

Africa is home to a variety of infectious diseases caused by viruses* or parasites* that live in monkeys, rats, or other animals known to be hosts. Flies, mosquitoes and other pathogens known as vectors* transmit the diseases to humans. Africa has some infectious diseases found nowhere else in the world and appears to be the source of numerous diseases found on other continents. Over the centuries, these diseases have been spread through trade and travel. The SLAVE TRADE, for example, brought various African diseases to America. In modern times, the ease of travel has allowed infected humans and livestock to carry additional viruses and parasites from Africa to other parts of the world. Mosquitoes and other animals that act as disease vectors have also found their way to other continents via planes and ships.

* Tropical or subtropical savannah grasslands with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth

Parasitic diseases restricted to Africa. One of the most common parasitic diseases in Africa is trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness. The often fatal sleeping sickness is caused by a unicellular microorganism that lives in wildlife and is transmitted to humans and livestock through the bite of the tsetse fly. Treatment with medication can cure most cases of sleeping sickness, and the spread of the disease can be controlled by eliminating tsetse flies near populated areas. However, sleeping sickness remains a serious problem in rural areas and in nature reserves protected from human habitation. Sleeping sickness occurs primarily in the savannah* regions of Africa, where the wild animals that transmit it live. Although the disease is a serious problem for humans and domestic animals, it has helped sustain wildlife herds in Africa by preventing the expansion of human settlement on the savannah. It has also played a role in controlling the spread of desert into savanna areas by limiting the herds of cattle grazing on grasslands. Leishmaniasis, another African parasitic disease, causes facial sores and disfigurements. Some forms of the disease are found in South America and Asia, but a variant is found only in Africa. A common host for the disease is the rock hyrax, a cave-dwelling rodent-like animal. Sandflies feed on the blood of the rock hyrax and transmit the disease to humans.

* microscopic viral organism that can live and reproduce only inside the cells of other living beings * parasitic organism that feeds on the body of another organism

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Diseases Poisoned by Poverty Climate and poverty can multiply disease problems, as demonstrated by a severe drought in Mozambique in the 1980s. The only food crop to survive the drought was cassava, a root crop that contains the poison cyanide. Acids found in beans normally counteract the poison, but the drought had wiped out the bean crop. The cyanide can be removed by drying or soaking the cassava. But because cassava was the only food crop available, people often didn't take the time to do so. As a result, many people in Mozambique suffered damage to their nervous systems as a result of cyanide poisoning. Children and women were hardest hit because working men had access to other foods.

Several parasitic diseases are transmitted by worms. The loa loa worm carries a disease called loaisis that causes swelling of the skin and allergic reactions. The small worm enters the human bloodstream through the bites of a large species of horsefly. It can often be seen passing under the thin membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelid in an infected person. Parasitic diseases of African origin. A number of parasitic diseases found around the world originate in Africa. Perhaps the most widespread of these is malaria, which is now also a major public health problem in Asia and South America. The parasites that cause malaria, a disease characterized by recurrent cycles of severe chills, fever, and sweating, are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. More than a million children die from malaria every year, mainly in Africa. It is the leading cause of death in African children. Most adults living in areas of Africa where malaria is common have developed a high level of natural immunity or resistance to the disease. There are vaccines to prevent malaria, but they are not widely available to Africans. The vaccines can also damage naturally acquired immunity. Various drugs are used to treat malaria, but malaria parasites have developed resistance to some of them. Most malaria prevention efforts focus on eliminating mosquito breeding areas and using bed nets to protect potential victims. Parasites that live in small aquatic snails cause a disease called schistosomiasis or schistosomiasis. The disease, once confined to central Africa, was spread to the Americas by the slave trade and now occurs in many places that lack water mains or that rely heavily on irrigation. Humans become infected by bathing, washing, or working in water that contains the snails and their parasites. Health experts estimate that schistosomiasis affects 200 million people worldwide, most of whom live in Africa. A single dose of a drug called praziquantel can cure schistosomiasis, and the snails can be killed with chemicals. However, the best long-term solution is to provide a safe water supply and educate people on how to avoid contact with the parasites. One of the most serious parasitic diseases in Africa is onchocerciasis, or river blindness, which is caused by a specific species of worm. The worms are carried by blackflies that breed in rainforest rivers and streams. River blindness causes severe facial skin disfigurement and often leads to permanent blindness. Over 30 million Africans suffer from river blindness, and in some areas around a third of the adult population is blinded by the disease. River blindness came to America with the slave trade and is now widespread in Central and South America. A drug called ivermectin offers an effective treatment for the disease, but the elimination of breeding grounds for the mosquitoes that transmit the disease has dramatically reduced infection rates in many areas of Africa. Viral diseases restricted to Africa. Lassa fever, transmitted by rats, is mainly found in West Africa. This viral disease causes fever,

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Diseases Bleeding, swollen face and neck and liver failure. The rats that transmit Lassa fever live in thatched huts in rural areas, making it difficult to control the spread of the disease. Researchers are currently working on a vaccine. Two of the scariest viruses in Africa are the Marburg virus and the Ebola virus. Marburg virus causes an extremely serious, often fatal disease characterized by severe internal bleeding. Little is known about the source of infection, but it appears to be transmitted through direct contact with an infected person. Similar to the Marburg virus, the Ebola virus also causes severe internal bleeding and is usually fatal. It is transmitted through contact with an infected person's blood, through infected needles, and through sexual contact. The host animal for the virus has not been identified, but bats are suspected. So far, only isolated outbreaks of Marburg and Ebola have occurred in Africa, but experts fear the possibility of future epidemics. There is no vaccine or known treatment for either virus, and the only way to stop its spread is to quarantine infected people. Viral diseases of African origin. Although yellow fever was first identified in Cuba, Central America, and the United States, it originated in Africa, where the hosts are arboreal monkeys. Mosquitoes in forested areas transmit the virus to humans, bringing the disease back to populated areas. There it is spread by Aedes aegypti, a common mosquito species. Yellow fever causes yellowing of the skin, internal bleeding, and vomiting. A highly effective vaccine is available that offers lifelong protection against yellow fever, and control of the disease is also achieved through mosquito habitat elimination. The viral disease AIDS was identified in the United States in 1981. However, research has shown that the first human cases appeared in central Africa as early as 1959. Researchers believe that HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, originated in African monkeys or apes. In the human population, HIV is spread through sexual intercourse or exposure to contaminated blood. Mothers can also transmit HIV to their unborn children during pregnancy or while their infants are breastfeeding. In most cases, it takes several years for HIV to develop into AIDS. As AIDS progresses, it destroys the human immune system, which normally protects the body from infectious diseases. Death is often caused by secondary infections that occur after the victim's immune system has collapsed. Drug treatments have helped prolong the lives of some people with AIDS, but a cure for the disease has not yet been found. In the early years, African officials paid little attention to AIDS, but the seriousness of the problem soon became apparent. AIDS cases in Africa have skyrocketed, with infection rates reaching 25 percent of sexually active adults in some major cities in central and east Africa. Because of the high mortality rate, lack of affordable and effective treatment, traditional sexual practices and lack of effective health education, AIDS threatens to become a devastating public health problem in many parts of Africa in the coming years.

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Diseases

The insects that transmit the disease known as river blindness breed in fast-moving waters. As a result, the disease is widespread on rivers with strong rapids such as the Nile, Congo, and Volta. This girl is helping a man suffering from river blindness.

DISEASES WITH SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN AFRICA A number of diseases, found inside and outside Africa, appear in Africa in slightly different forms or circumstances. These differences are mainly due to factors such as climate, geography, and the behavior and customs of people likely to be affected by the disease. infectious diseases. In the 1960s, measles was the leading cause of death in West African infants. Widespread malnutrition contributed to the development of pneumonia, diarrhea, and other secondary infections in children with measles. Other complications of measles resulted in blindness, deafness, and intellectual disability. The vaccines now available have helped reduce the risk of measles in urban areas, but the disease is still a major problem in remote areas. Meningitis is another viral disease that is much more devastating in Africa than in the West. At one time, periodic epidemics of the disease killed up to 15 thousand people. Antibiotics have been effective in controlling meningitis, but parts of Africa - particularly the northern savannah region stretching from BURKINA FASO to the SUDAN - still experience epidemics from time to time.

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Diseases

* Taboo religious prohibition on doing anything that is believed to cause harm

Two common infectious diseases in animals, hydatid disease and trichinosis, also have distinctive features in Africa. Hydatid disease is caused by a worm that lives in dogs and is transmitted through their body waste. It is most prevalent than anywhere else in the world in the Turkana region of Kenya, where working mothers often use dogs to look after their children. Hydatid creates large growths in the liver that can be treated either surgically or with drugs. Trichinosis, caused by eating spoiled pork meat, attacks muscle tissue, including the heart, and can lead to heart failure. In Africa, trichinosis infects wild boar but not domestic pigs. Taboos* against eating wild boar have helped curb the spread of the disease. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as syphilis and gonorrhea are common in Africa. Lifestyle and attitudes towards GENDER ROLE AND SEXUALITY play a major role in this problem, as does the high proportion of young people in Africa. A significant portion of the population falls into the age groups most affected by STDs – males aged 20 to 30 and females aged 15 to 25. Also, African men tend to marry later than Western men. In the meantime, they can have sex with prostitutes who may be carriers of sexually transmitted diseases. In addition, many men move to urban areas to find work and when they return home, they may be bringing STDs back to their wives. Many men also shy away from using condoms. With few doctors and little access to healthcare, sexually transmitted disease education and treatment in Africa lags far behind that of the West. As with other diseases, Africa's poverty contributes both to the development and spread of STDs and to the difficulty in preventing and curing the diseases.

NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES The leading cause of death in industrialized countries is coronary artery disease, which is caused by a high-fat diet, lack of exercise and cigarette smoking. Heart disease is almost unknown in Africa, even among people who eat a high-fat diet. But rheumatic heart disease, which has become rare in the West, is the most common cause of heart failure in Africa. One reason could be that rheumatic heart disease is associated with poverty and a certain type of bacterial infection - both common in Africa. Cancer is found in both Africa and the West, but the most common types are different. Lung cancer, for example, was rare in Africa, although it is increasing now that more Africans are smoking. Another type of cancer that is more common in the West than in Africa is prostate cancer, which only affects men. The low incidence of this disease in Africa may be related to diet. However, cervical cancer is more common in Africa than in Western countries. The high rate of this cancer affecting women appears to be related to early sexual activity and multiple pregnancies. Another type of cancer that is common in the West but almost non-existent in Africa is skin cancer, which is caused by overexposure to the sun. Sun cancers are almost unknown in Africa because of the built-in protective mechanisms in Africa's pigmented skin. Scientists are learning a lot about tumors by examining the factors that make some cancers prevalent in Africa but not in the West. (See also AIDS, Healing and Medicine, Healthcare, Pests and Pest Control.)

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Prophecy and Oracle

Divination Divination and Oracle Oracle

* deity

god or goddess

* Cult group held together by devotion to a specific person, belief or god

In much of Africa, people turn to divination for guidance in solving their problems. The act of divination involves advice, a statement or a prediction for the future - all of which are considered messages from the spiritual world. Many Christian and Muslim Africans do not see divination as contrary to their beliefs. Her approach to understanding life and solving its problems combines divination, religion and other elements such as modern medicine. Fortune tellers and their methods. Diviners, the men and women who perform divination, are believed to be spokesmen for spiritual forces, including supernatural beings and the dead. Some people are chosen at birth to become diviners; They may be descended from or related to other fortune tellers. Other individuals are identified through religious or magical rituals, or upon recovery from a particular illness. Diviners are sometimes assumed to have spiritual twins of the opposite sex. To bridge the gap between the earthly and spiritual worlds, a male fortune teller can dress in women's clothing or a female fortune teller in men's clothing. There are two main types of divination practiced in Africa. Apparent divination explains past calamities, and prescient divination predicts probable future events. Psychics rely on a variety of methods, and some may use more than one technique. Often soothsayers act as mediums, channels of communication between the earthly and spiritual worlds. This may involve entering a trance in which the diviner is believed to be taken over by a spirit or deity*. The fortune teller then relays or plays a message. For example, in southeastern Burkina Faso, a spirit does not have a tongue but communicates through the hand gestures of a diviner. Some spirit mediums are associated with the shrines of major African cults*, such as the Mwali cult in south-eastern Africa and the Ngombo cult in southern DRC and Angola. In other cases, a diviner can act as a medium without being possessed by a spirit. He or she may go into a trance and upon awakening tell of a vision or a journey into the spirit world. Dreams can be viewed as forms of divination. The TUAREG of North Africa believe that the spirits of the dead roam near graves and sometimes bring tidings to the living. To get a vision of the future, a person can sleep on a grave. Psychics often interpret physical signs as spiritual messages. Among the Dogon people of Mali, for example, at sunset diviners draw a grid or series of lines in the dust outside the village. They sprinkle grain over it to attract the pale fox, an animal that roams at night. The next morning, the soothsayers read messages in the fox's tracks across the trellis. Other fortune tellers store items in a special basket, bag or mug. These items include seeds, insects, and parts of animals or birds. Crafted items that are important in daily life or associated with myths and symbols can also be used. The diviner observes the movement or arrangement of these items and interprets them to convey the message. purposes of divination. People consult a fortune teller to discover the causes of some misfortune such as a difficult conflict, catastrophe, great loss, mysterious illness or even death. Divination is based on the idea that human relationships can be the cause of such troubles. the measuring

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Prophecy and Oracle

Two Dogon diviners in Mali interpret a spiritual message by examining markings in the sand.

DIVORCE

Sage is expected to uncover the people or issues involved in the problem and restore peace of mind. It may suggest a course of action. A type of divination called an oracle can be used to determine guilt. In such cases, the diviner invokes an unseen force to arrange or move special objects such as horns, rattles, or gourds. The fortune teller could also poison a chicken, ask a series of yes-or-no questions, and interpret the chicken's movements as answers to those questions. Sometimes the diviner will ask spirits or recently deceased members of the community to answer the oracle's questions. A diviner claims to be neutral in the process of divination, merely an instrument through which the spirits speak. His interpretations are respected. Oracles generally strengthen public opinion and society's beliefs, values, and morals. At the same time, they can reveal jealousy and an underlying power struggle within the community. Most divination traditions operate at the family or community level and have little to do with politics. In some cases, however, divination is clearly in support of political authority. (See also Religion and Ritual, Spirit Possession, Witchcraft, and Wizardry.)

See marriage systems.

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Disappointed

Disappointed Disappointed

* Guerrilla warfare with sudden raids by small bands of warriors * Regime

current political system or rule

he small country of Djibouti lies at the southern entrance to the Red Sea. Although the landscape is mostly flat and barren, several mountain ranges dot the northern part of the country. The climate is extremely hot; During the dry season, temperatures can reach 113°F. Djibouti's economy is based primarily on its role as a trading center for goods traveling to and from Africa via the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. It has a modern port and railway connection to ADDIS ABABA, the capital of ETHIOPIA. However, apart from these commercial activities, the economy is not strong. With most of the country unsuitable for agriculture, Djibouti relies on imported food. It has little industry and unemployment ranges from 40 to 70 percent. Additionally, a flood of refugees from the war-torn nations of Ethiopia, ERITREA and SOMALIA has strained Djibouti's resources and increased the need for foreign aid. The main ethnic groups in Djibouti are the Issa in the south and the Afar in the north. Other peoples include ARABS, recent immigrants from northern Somalia, and French nationals, who hold many important government posts. Most of the population lives in or near the city of Djibouti, the country's capital and main port. Djibouti, a former French colony, became independent in 1977. President Hassan Gouled Aptidon and his party ruled the country for many years. Most of Gouled's support came from the Issa, causing discontent among the Afar. In 1991, around 3,000 strong Afar guerrillas* began a civil war against the Gouled regime*. Gouled responded by holding multiparty elections for the presidency and legislature in 1992 and 1993.

Republic of Djibouti POPULATION: 451,442 (2000 estimated population) AREA: 8,500 square miles. (22,000 km²) LANGUAGES: French, Arabic (both official); Afar, Somali NATIONAL CURRENCY: Djibouti franc MAIN RELIGIONS: Muslim 94%, Christian 6% CITIES: Djibouti (capital), 383,000 (1999 est.); Ali Sabieth, Dikhil, Tadjoura, Obock ANNUAL RAINFALL: Less than 5 inches (127 mm)

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ECONOMY: GDP per capita: $1,200 MAIN PRODUCTS AND EXPORTS: Agriculture: Goats, sheep, camels, cattle, coffee Manufacturing: Dairy products, mineral water bottling, port and sea support, construction Mining: Salt production The economy is mainly based on services and trade. GOVERNMENT: Independence from France, 1977. Parliamentary government limited to no more than 4 political parties. President elected by universal suffrage. Organs: Assemblée Nationale; Council of Ministers (appointed by the President). HEADS OF STATE SINCE INDEPENDENCE: 1977-1999 President Hassan Gouled Aptidon 1999- President Ismail Omar Guellah ARMED FORCES: 9,600 (1998 est.) EDUCATION: Literacy rate 46%

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Éboué, Adolphe-Félix-Sylvestre Government officials declined to attend. Despite this, Gouled and his party declared victory. Gouled then took the opportunity to attack and crush the armed opposition. He continued to dominate Djibouti politics and government until 1999 when his nephew, Ismail Omar Guellah, was elected President. (See also climate, colonialism in Africa, trade, transport.)

Du Du Bois, Bois, W.E.B. NETWORK. 1868–1963 Father of Pan-Africanism

Éboué, Éboué, AdolpheAdolpheFélix-Sylvestre Félix-Sylvestre 1884–1944 Kolonialverwalter

illiam Edward Burghardt Du Bois was a leading advocate for black equality in the United States and elsewhere. A Massachusetts-born African American, Du Bois attended college and earned a Ph.D. Graduated from Harvard University. In the early 1900s he became a black civil rights activist. Du Bois was known for his view that social change could only be achieved through active protest. In 1909 he helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which became a leading civil rights organization in the United States. Du Bois was also the founder of Pan-Africanism, a movement that aims to unite black people around the world in protest against racism and colonialism. He believed that people of African descent everywhere had common interests and should work together to improve their place in society. However, he campaigned against the ideas of his pan-African colleague Marcus Mosiah GARVEY, who encouraged black Americans to go “back to Africa” to rediscover their heritage and build a new life there. Du Bois organized several pan-African conferences in the 1920s and 1930s. Du Bois wrote many books including Souls of Black Folk (1903), The Negro (1915), Color and Democracy (1945) and The World and Africa (1947). Towards the end of his life, Du Bois moved to Ghana where he renounced his US citizenship. (See also Diaspora, Africans, Negritude.)

Dolphe-Félix-Sylvestre Éboué was a Creole civil servant who served in various colonial posts in France in the early 20th century. He is best known for bringing several French colonies in Africa into World War II to fight on the side of the Allies. Born in French Guiana, South America, Éboué attended a colonial administration school, where he formed friendships that would be important in his future career. He served in the French colony of OubanguiChari in Central Africa from 1909 to 1931 and then held posts in several French Caribbean territories. In 1939 Éboué was demoted and sent back to Oubangui-Chari - probably at the request of personal enemies. However, this proved to be a lucky move for both Éboué and France. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, most of France's African colonies supported the Nazi Vichy government. However, Éboué won over CAMEROON and FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA

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Éboué, Adolphe-Félix-Sylvestre joins the Allies and Charles de Gaulle's Free French forces in the fight against Germany. After Éboué's death, de Gaulle had him buried in the Pantheon of Heroes in Paris. He is the only black person to have ever received this honor. (See also First and Second World Wars)

Economic history * sub-Saharan refers to Africa south of the Sahara * pre-colonial refers to the period before European powers colonized Africa

The lack of written sources makes it difficult to trace the early economic history of much of the African continent, particularly sub-Saharan Africa*. What is clear is that Africans in pre-colonial* times had basic economic activities that provided them with the things they needed to survive. At the same time, however, many factors limited the intensive economic development in Asia and Europe. Much of Africa's recent economic history is associated with the period of European colonialism, from the late 19th to the mid-20th centuries. The nations that colonized Africa saw the continent as a vast source of untapped wealth. Only after many false starts and many wasted investments would they realize the forces that had held back the African economy for centuries.

PRE-COLONIAL ECONOMY Africans supported their own economic needs and traded with each other long before they had any contact with other peoples. However, scholars have differing views on the nature of these early economic activities.

* Domestication Adopting or training plants or animals for human use

* Handyman

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skilled craftsman

Agriculture. Economic history begins with the advent of agriculture and the domestication* of animals. Both of these developments pave the way for sedentary communities that not only provide for their basic needs, but also produce surplus food for trade. In addition, the agricultural surplus leads to the formation of specialized groups – such as traders and artisans* – who are not involved in food production. Food surpluses also stimulate trade and commerce between neighboring societies. Africans living in the SAHARA DESERT had already, around 6000 B.C. B.C. Cattle domesticated. African agriculture, which developed in the late 10th century B.C. in the SAHEL region, distributed in southern Africa in the 100s or 200s AD For several reasons, the conversion to agriculture did not always lead to dramatic increases in productivity. First, the most common farming method was swidden, or slash and burn. This method, which involves small plots and little irrigation or fertilizer, usually results in low crop yields. Second, poor soil and unpredictable rainfall across much of Africa make it almost impossible to rely on consistent crops over long periods of time. Third, Africa's geographic location makes it extremely difficult to transport goods. The inland terrain is rough and unhealthy for the large animals that are often used to transport goods. In addition, most of the inland rivers are only navigable for short distances, and Africa has few natural harbors for cargo traffic along its coasts.

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Economic History Much local trading activity in Africa takes place in open-air markets like this one in Antananarivo, Madagascar.

Because of the problems in transporting goods to distant markets, farmers had little reason to produce surplus food. Another factor slowing agricultural improvement was the lack of population pressure in the countryside. Until recently, Africa's overall population remained fairly low, partly due to the presence of many disease-carrying organisms. In addition, Africa contained ample open space. When farmland near a village became less fertile, some residents simply moved to new areas. The SLAVE TRADE, which flourished between AD 800 and 1900, displaced up to 20 million people from Africa and further reduced the population. Finally African

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Cultural values of economic history that placed little value on goods and money did not encourage the production of surplus food for trade. The situation in North Africa was different. There, irrigation along water bodies such as the Nile enabled intensive farming. Egypt developed around 3000 BC. to a prosperous society. and developed numerous connections to the ancient Near East. Around 400 BC the city-state of CARTHAGE in present-day TUNISIA became one of the leading trading powers in the Mediterranean region. With the Sahara desert acting as a barrier to migration, densely populated societies grew in the fertile lands of North Africa. trade and commerce. Despite various difficulties, trade and commerce existed in pre-colonial Africa. Scholars have uncovered evidence of early exchanges between farmers and ranchers. Members of these groups also traded with hunting, fishing, and metalworking peoples. However, this trade was mainly local. In sub-Saharan Africa, trade with groups outside the region developed very slowly. As early as AD 100, merchants from Southwest Asia were trading along the East African coast. In the 500s camel caravans began crossing the Sahara, providing trade links between sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa and the Middle East. Trade in North Africa developed more easily. Already around 400 BC. Carthage traded manufactured goods with people on the Moroccan coast and imported tin from northern France. Carthaginian merchants were a common sight in the marketplaces of ancient Greece. Early Egyptian trade relations extended to the Middle East kingdoms of Sumer and Babylonia, and the ancient Egyptians conducted regular trading expeditions to SUDAN and ETHIOPIA. The Romans sourced many goods from North Africa, including grain, olive oil, livestock, timber, and marble. The most common early exports from sub-Saharan Africa were gold, slaves, and ivory. Of secondary importance were wood, spices, vegetable oils and rubber. For centuries, Africa was the main source of gold for the Mediterranean and South Asia. The search for gold also motivated the earliest European trade voyages to Africa in the 15th century AD. For Europeans, the importance of African gold declined after they began exploring and mining the Americas. Slaves made up an important part of sub-Saharan Africa's trade with North Africa, the Middle East and Asia during the Middle Ages. In the 16th century, European plantation owners became the main customers in America. After European nations abolished the slave trade in the 19th century, Muslims took over the trade. Islamic involvement in the African slave trade peaked in the 19th century and did not cease until late in that century. During the pre-colonial era, Africans generally exported commodities in exchange for manufactured goods, mainly textiles, metalware, weapons, and shells and beads. In some cases, Africans used imported products, such as iron bars, to create manufactured goods. Pearls and shells were often used both as a means of payment and as consumer goods. On the whole

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Economic history Oil-rich and oil-poor The main exceptions to the poor performance of African economies have been the oil-producing countries of North Africa. Libya, Africa's largest oil producer, has the highest per capita income on the continent. Since independence, Algeria has developed both its oil and natural gas industries, which have contributed to rapid industrialization. However, Nigeria, Africa's second largest oil producer, hasn't benefited nearly as much from oil. This is partly because Nigerian oil revenues go to a small, powerful segment of the population, and partly because of corruption among government officials who oversee the industry.

* exploit to profit from it; to use productively

* Cash crop crop grown primarily for sale rather than local consumption

Africa's foreign trade affected the coastal peoples much more than those living further inland. Few imported goods made it inland.

COLONIAL AND POST-COLONIAL ECONOMIES By the start of the colonial period in the late 18th century, the market for many African exports had declined sharply. Some, like slaves, were no longer in great demand. Others, like vegetable oils, have been replaced by cheaper alternatives from other sources. However, colonialism led to a revival in exports from Africa as Europeans took for themselves what they had previously acquired through trade. The role of export. First, the European nations that colonized Africa gave private corporations the rights to exploit the continent's natural riches*. However, most of these ventures failed due to the high cost of establishing mines or plantations, as well as constructing roads and railways to transport products. By the early 20th century, European governments had stepped in to administer the colonies and oversee African exports. Over the next 60 years trade and commerce between Africa and other parts of the world increased significantly. African mining was very successful. By the mid-1930s, Africa provided almost all of the diamonds, half of the gold, and about a fifth of the copper sold worldwide. Other important mineral exports were manganese, asbestos, and phosphates used in fertilizers. The increase in exports helped spur the development of new manufacturing and service industries in Africa. In West Africa these new companies were largely in the hands of Africans, but in East Africa they were dominated by Asian immigrants. Few of the new industries developed into large corporations. In southern and central Africa, the growth of mining and manufacturing industries led to greater demand for food. However, the colonial powers' agricultural efforts were much less successful than mining. The large plantations were often no more efficient than smaller farms. In addition, colonies with agricultural economies were often concentrated on a small number of crops and suffered when demand for those products fell. In many areas, African farmers have become adept at growing and selling cash crops*. Rural incomes and living standards were higher where small-scale farming rather than plantation farming occurred. The human cost of the colonial powers' export orientation could be high. Governments and private companies often resorted to harsh methods, including forced labor, to ensure production. Africans have often been denied access to land and employment in skilled positions. In the late colonial period, a huge gap emerged between urban and rural incomes. The postcolonial economy. In the first few years after independence, most African economies continued to grow reasonably well. However, the income difference between the urban and rural population led to an increased migration from the countryside to the cities

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economic history

* Bureaucracy large departmental organization within a government

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looking for economic opportunities. In the mid-1960s, increased government spending on education led to large numbers of educated but unemployed youth in the cities. Under pressure to create more jobs, many governments have expanded their role in the economy. Bureaucracies* grew and state and corporate corporations multiplied. Most of these companies were grossly inefficient, employing far more people than they could reasonably afford. To increase revenue, leaders began restricting imported goods that competed with locally produced products. They also kept the value of their currencies artificially high compared to foreign currencies. In the long term, however, this policy lowered export prices and caused export earnings to shrink. The effect of this post-colonial economic policy was dramatic. Between the late 1960s and 1980, agricultural exports fell by a third. Mineral exports fared better, but fell by up to 40 percent in some countries. Low grain and mineral prices in the 1970s exacerbated the problem by lowering revenues for exported goods. Personal incomes plummeted and unemployment skyrocketed, reducing government tax revenues. To balance their budgets, African nations borrowed large sums of money from other countries, as well as from institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In the late 1980s, African economies were in serious trouble as their debt levels mounted and economic growth continued to slow. The combination of reduced tax revenues, falling export earnings, huge national debts and growing political and social unrest forced African leaders to reconsider their economic strategies. At the same time, nations and institutions that had lent money began demanding changes in the way African nations did business. Lenders forced many African countries to adjust the value of their currency to reflect its true value in the world market. They also called for an end to import restrictions and price controls. Many state-owned companies became private and government payroll levels were reduced. Even spending on social programs has been reduced to balance government budgets. So far, these new strategies have had little impact on African economies. Business owners lack confidence in governments' ability to bring about change, and the production of goods has not increased significantly. Investors were uncertain about Africa's commitment to economic reform. As a result, foreign investment in the continent has not grown as much as in other parts of the world. Both lender countries and African leaders hope that the reform policies will ultimately improve the continent's economic prospects. (See also Colonialism in Africa; Development, Economic, and Social Affairs; Fisheries; Forests and Forestry; Hunting and Gathering; Labour; Livestock; Markets; Minerals and Mining; Plantation Systems; Trade; Transport; West African Trade Settlements.)

people and culture

Plate 1: The Herero are Bantu-speaking peoples of southern Angola, Namibia and Botswana. The inhabitants of Botswana are descendants of the Herero who fled the German colony of South West Africa (now Namibia) in 1904. The clothing of this Herero woman is said to be based on the clothing style of the wives of German missionaries in the 19th century.

Image 2: Music and dance play an important role in many African cultures. Masked figures in ritual dances often represent spiritual beings, and the dancer's identity may be kept secret. This masked dancer performs in eastern Nigeria. Plate 3: Following an Islamic tradition, royal courts in West Africa often have musical ensembles playing on ceremonial occasions. The musicians pictured here, with side-blown horns and a drum, are attached to the court of the Sultan of Cameroon.

Plate 4: Many African societies transmit information orally through stories, poems and songs. Men and women with knowledge of local culture and history and a gift for storytelling are held in high esteem. In Namibia, a Khoisan woman tells a story.

Plate 5: Christianity probably came to Ethiopia in the 300s. The developing Ethiopian Orthodox Church remains a major force in the country. An orthodox priest in the ancient city of Gondar displays an image of St. George and the dragon.

Plate 6: The Basotho (or Sotho) live in the small kingdom of Lesotho, a country completely surrounded by South Africa. This Basotho woman is steaming cornbread over a fire.

Plate 7: The colorful souks or markets of Marrakech, Morocco sell almost anything and haggling is part of the process. This stand is dedicated to selling wool.

Plate 8: During the first two years, African children are protected, spoiled and taught to respect authority. Older brothers or sisters often look after the infants during the day. Here a toddler in Uganda plays with her doll.

Plate 9: The Asante form a large and powerful chiefdom in southern Ghana and the Ivory Coast. When Osei Tutu II became the sixteenth Asante king in 1999, he took the name of the ruler who founded the Asante kingdom in the late 17th century. The new king also received the traditional symbol of the Asante entity - the Golden Chair.

Photo 10: Jomo Kenyatta from Kenya led his country to independence and became its first President in 1964. He can be seen in one of his last public appearances in 1977. He died the following year.

Plate 11: In 1993, F.W. de Klerk, President of South Africa, and Nelson Mandela, Chairman of the African National Congress, received the Nobel Peace Prize for their cooperation in ending the system of racial segregation in South Africa. The following year brought free elections in which all races could vote. Mandela became the nation's first black president.

Plate 12: African athletes have excelled in international competitions. Runner Paul Tergat of Kenya will finish first in a half marathon in Mexico.

Image 13: Rwanda has been torn apart by conflicts between Hutu and Tutsi since 1959. During this time, millions of Rwandans have fled to neighboring countries. Here, Rwandan refugees cross the Kagera River and seek shelter in Tanzania.

Plate 14: During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast during the day and eat after sunset and just before sunrise. In Cairo, a man prepares sweets that are traditionally eaten at breakfast.

Picture 15: The Sakalava, a large ethnic group in Madagascar, live on the west coast of the island. They have a long history as seafarers, trading food, spices and slaves in the Persian Gulf, Asia and the Americas. The Sakalava wear distinctive clothing, such as the colorful hip scarves pictured here.

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Index page numbers of articles in these volumes are in bold.

An Assamese language, 2:207 Abacha, Sani, 3:144 Abbasid Caliphate, 4:31 Abboud, Ibrahim, 4:69 Abdullah, Abdullatif, 3:23, 24 Abdullah, Ahmed, 1:168 Abdullah, Muhammad Ahmad ibn Sayyid. See Mahdi, alAbdullahi, Calif, 4:67 Abidjan, 1:1 Abiola, Moshood, 3:144 Abolition of slavery, 4:32–33 Abubakar, Abdulsalam, 3:144 Abuja, Nigeria, 2:164 (illustr.) Abyssinians , 1:23 Acacia tree, 4:66 Accessories, clothing, 1:88–89 (Fig.) Accra, 1:1 Acheampong, I., 2:95–96, 3:203 Achebe, Chinua, 1:2 (Fig .), 1:194, 2:208, 3:23 ACS (American Colonization Society), 3:9 Action Group, 3:143 Actium, Battle of, 3:214 Biko Activists, South Africa, 1:86 Cabral, 3 :214 Guinea-Bissau, 1:110 Tutu, South Africa, 4:126–27 Adam and Gogo, 4:89 Addis Ababa, 1:3, 2:33, 3:17 youth, 1:130 adulthood, rites of, 2 :17. 158 Aedisius, 2:38 Aerophones, 3:113 Aezanes Aksum, 3:76 Afar people, 1:220, 2:36, 47 affinity, relations of, 2:57 Afonso I, 3:82, 115 AFRC (Armed Forces Revolutionary Council), 3:203 Africa, study of, 1:3–4 Africa 50 (film), 1:137 Africa in Search of Democracy (Busia), 1:108 African Baptist Church, 4:20

African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, 2:141 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, 2:141 African Horse Disease, 1:32 African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), 1:120, 121, 2:110 , 111 African Independent Churches (AICs), 3:190, 191 African National Congress (ANC) De Klerk and, 1:196 Lutuli, President of, 3:34–35 Mandela, Leader of, 3:57, 58 SANNC , Forerunners von, 3:175 in South Africa, 4:49-54 Allied Unions, 4:135 in Zambia, 4:164 African Native Convention, 4:49 African Political Organization, 4:49 African Publishers Network, 3:194 Africanus, Leo, 4:114 Afrikaans language, 2:203, 205, 3:23, 4:52 Afrikaner republics, 1:5, 2:196, 4:39 Afrikaner, 1:158, 4:48–50, 57 Afroasiatic languages , 2:203-4 Afterlife. See also specific religions ancient Egyptian beliefs about, 2:11 traditional ideas about, 1:192 ages and aging, 1:5–8 (illust.) eldership in class systems, 1:143–44 and form of burial, 1:192 Age of Princes (Ethiopia), 2:32–33 ages, 1:7, 8 dances, 1:189 political organization based on, 2:104 Aghlabids, 4:121 Agona people, 2:98 agriculture, 1:8–13. For specific countries, see under Economy in Ancient Egypt, 2:10 Colonial Era, 1:225 Crops, 1:8–11 Cultivation, 1:11–12 (fig.)

Irrigation systems for, 2:159–61 (Fig.) Work in, 2:198–200 Land reforms and problems in, 1:13 Pests and pest control, 3:172–73 Plantation systems, 3:176–77 during the pre-colonial period, 1 :222–24 main crops, 1:8–11 root crops, 1:9 in the Sahara, 4:3 seed crops, 1:9–10 slash and burn, 2:72 roles of women in, 2:88 of the Yoruba peoples, 4:161 Ah , but thy land is beautiful (Paton), 3:168 Ahaggar Mountains, 1:18 Ahidjo, Ahmadou, 1:117–18 Ahmad, Muhammed. See Mahdi, al-Ahmed Salim, Salim, 3:167 AICs. See African Independent Churches Aideed, Muhammad Farah, 4:43, 44 Aidoo, Ama Ata, 3:23, 4:88 AIDS, 1:14–15, 1:215, 4:55–56 Air Transportation, 4:107– 9 (map), 129 Aka people, 3:196 Akan people, 1:1, 2:47, 98 Akan region, 1:15 Aksum, 1:16, 1:139, 2:30, 31 archaeological remains of, 1 :50, 2:37 Christianity in, 1:132 Eritrea as part of, 2:27 Akuapem people, 2:98 Akumfo, F., 2:96, 3:203 Akyem people, 2:98 Alcoholics Drinks, 2:68 Alexander the Great, 3:155–56 Alexandria, 1:16–17, 1:57, 3:215 Algeria, 1:17–23 (map) Algiers, capital of, 1:23 Ben Bella, President of, 1: 78-79 Bidonvilles in, 1:139 Boumédienne, President of, 1:94

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Index as French colony, 1:160, 161 History of, 1:19–23 (Fig.) Land and people of, 1:17–19 Oil exploration in, 1:225 and Roman Africa, 3:215 Ternifine archaeological site in , 1:44 urban population in, 1:142 violent civil war in, 2:141 Algerian Sahara Desert, 1:18 Algiers, 1:23 Ali-Sanusi, Muhammad ibn, 4:75 All-African Games, 4:63 All People's Congress ( APC), 4:24 Almohads, 4:122 Almoravids, 3:159 Al-Mubashir (Algerian newspaper), 3:194 Alpine Ecosystems, 2:2–3 Al-Rimah (Umar), 4:133 Alternative Fuels, 2: 22 Al-Thulathiyya (Mahfouz), 3:45 Aluund people, 2:51 Alvarez, Francisco, 4:114 Ambar, Malik, 1:204 Amboseli National Park (Kenya), 2:3 (illust.) American Colonization Society ( ACS), 3:9 American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color, 3:9 Americas diaspora to, 1:206–10 human ancestors in, 2:146 Amhara people, 1:23–24, 2:35 , 47 Amharic Speech, 2:38, 3:20, 4:85 Amin Dada, Idi, 1:24, 1:195, 2:43, 3:105, 164, 4:129, 130 Amlak, Yekuno, 2:31 Amnesty International , 4:94 ANC. See African National Congress Ancestors, 1:193-195. See also honoring kinship cults, 1:6 everyday roles of Madagascar, 1:194 of Madagascar, 3:39 politics and, 1:194–95 sculpture and worship of, 1:6 Ancient Egypt, 2:10–14 (fig. ) Ancient Egyptian Language Group, 2:203 And a Threefold Cord (La Guma), 2:197 Andom, Aman, 2:34 Andrianampoinimerina, 3:38 Andrianjaka, 1:36 Anglican Church, 4:126 Angola, 1:25–31 (map) , 4:53 Cabinda, 1:109 Geography and Economics of, 1:25–27

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History and Government of, 1:27–29 (Fig.) Independence and Civil War in, 2:155 Masks of, 1:66 and Namibia, 3:122 Neto, President of, 3:131 People and Cultures of, 1:29 –31 as Portuguese colony, 1:166 Anikulapo-Kuti, Fela, 3:182 domestic animals, 1:31–35 (illust.) agricultural use, 1:12 as food, 2:66–67 historical herding of, 1:50 Grazing cattle, 3:28–30 (fig.) in mythology, 3:117, 119 as symbols, 3:210 game and wildlife parks, 4:146–50 (map) (fig.) Anjouan, 1:167, 168 Anlo people, 2:98 Annan, Kofi, 1:35–36 Antananarivo, 1:36, 1:223 (illust.) Anti-Atlas Mountains, 1:71 Antonianism, 2:187 Antony, Marc (Markus) , 1: 147–48, 3:214 apartheid, 1:36–37, 4:46, 48, 58 Biko, opponents of, 1:86 Botswana's resistance to, 1:92 in Cape Town, 1:120 as a class system, 1:147 De Klerk and Ende, 1:195, 196 and ethnic identity in southern Africa, 2:46 Fugard's plays on, 2:78, 4:88 Gordimer's literature on, 2:101 history, 4:50–54 introduction of, 2:6 –7 Mandela, Opponents of, 3:57–58 Criticizing Films, 1:137 Pressure to End, 2:214 Smuts, Opponents of, 4:39 Tutu, Opponents of, 4:126 Verwoerd, Creators of, 4:138– 39 Apedemek, 3:76 Apostolic Church of John Maranke, 3:61 Arab-Berber ethnic groups, 1:19 Arabic language, 2:203, 206, 206 (illus.), 3:18–19 “Arabization” of Mauritania, 3 :71–73 (fig.) Arabs in Africa, 1:37–40 (fig.), 2:47 conquered Algeria, 1:19 in Egypt, 2:16–17 as ethnic group, 2:39, 40 family life, 2:58

Influence on African music, 3:107, 108 Islamic law brought by, 2:209–10 Morocco, 3:92 Slave trade by, 2:130 Tippu Tip, 4:91 Travel and exploration, 4:112–13 Tunisia, dominion in , 4:121–23 in Western Sahara, 4:145 in Zanzibar, 4:168, 169 Archeology and Prehistory, 1:40–53 (map) of Bantu, 1:76 of Central and South Africa, 1:51–53 ( Fig.) of East Africa, 1:48–51 Excavations, Archaeology, 2:126 (Fig.) Introduction to, 1:40–43 of North Africa, 1:43–46 (Fig.) of West Africa, 1:46–48 Architecture, 1:53–60 (illust.) colonial, 1:58–59 early foreign influence on, 1:56–58 in Ethiopia, 2:37–38 houses and dwellings, 2:138–40 modernization of, 1: 59–60 in Pyramids, 3:196–97 Symbolism in, 1:55 Traditional, 1:53–56 Ardipithecus, 2:142–43 Arghul (instrument), 3:113 Ark of the Covenant, 2:38, 3:20 Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC), 3:203 Armed Islamic Groups (GIA), 1:22 Art(s), 1:60-69. See also Crafts Angolan, 1:28 carving, 1:183, 184 cinema, 1:99, 1:136-38 (illus.) decorative arts, 1:67-69 (illus.) of Ethiopia, 2:37-38 Influences from, outside Africa, 1:211 masks, 1:65–66 (illustrated), 3:65–67 (illustrated) overview of, 1:60–62 painting, 1:67 proverbs and riddles such as, 3:192 bast , 1:183 rock art, 3:212–14 samba, painters, 4:6 sculpture, 1:62–64 (illust.) theatres, 4:86–89 art schools, 1:64 explanation of Arusha, 4:83 Arussi people , 2:36 As, Amr ibn al-, 1:110 Asante (Ashanti), 1:69, 2:48, 4:102 Asantewa, queen of, 1:70

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Index decorative arts of, 1:68 Foundation of, 1:15 Osei Tutu, King of, 3:168 Prempeh, King of, 3:186–87 Queen Mothers of, 3:200 Sculpture of, 1:63 (fig.) ; Asantewa, Yaa, 1:70 Ascension, 4:5–6 Ashanti Gold Mine, 2:95 (illust.) Asia, diaspora to, 1:203–5 Asians of Mauritius, 3:74 in Uganda, 4:130 Askiya Muhammad I, 1:70 Asma'u, Nana, 1:71, 3:21 Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama, 3:193 Assoumani, She Is, 1:168 More High Dam, 2:16, 17 (illust.), 161 , 161; 3:148, 149 Atlantic, coast of, 2:1 Atlas Mountains, 1:71–72 (illustrated), 2:2 Augustus, 3:214 Auma, Alice, 3:190 Aurés Mountains, 1:71 Australopithecines, 1999; 2:143–45 Awoonor, Kofi, 3:23 Ayizo people, 1:83 Azande (Niam-Niam) people, 2:48 Azikiwe, Benjamin Nnamdi, 1:72–73 Azores High (pressure system), 1:1

B Ba, Maraima, 3:28 Babangida, Abraham, 3:144 Babinga, 3:196 Ganda, 2:49 Gaza, John the Baptist, 1:106 Baggara, 2:48 Bagirmi, 4:141 Bahareya, Egypt, 1: 45 Baker, Samuel, 2:175 Balanta, 2:110, 111 Balogun, Ola, 1:138 Bamana, 1:73 Bambara, 1:60, 65, 1:73, 1:88, :48, 3:55 Run away Grassfields, 1:114 Run away people, 1:60, 118, 3:66 (illustrated) Bananas, 1:10 Banda, Ngwazi Hastings Kamuzu, 1:73–74, 3:48, (illustrated) Banjul Charter, 2:141 Banks and banking, 3:89-90 Bantu languages, 2:204, 205 Bantu peoples, 1:74-76 (illustrated), 2:43, 124-25

Berberaffen, 3:151 Berberaffen, 1:19 Barghash ibn Sa'id, 1:77 Barkcloth, 1:183 Gerste, 1:10 Barrages (Bewässerung), 2:160–61 Barre, Muhammad Siad, 4:42– 61. 43, 46 Tausschandel, 3:61, 4:104 Barth, Heinrich, 1:77, 4:116 Baseda, 1:83 Beckenbewässerung, 2:159, 160 Korbwaren, 1:181, 184 (Abb. ) Korbwarenhäuser, 2:11. 37 Black-Nation, 3:96 Black-Volk, 3:6–7 Bastet, 1:32 Black-Volk, 2:53 Blackland, 1:158, 3:96. See also Lesotho Baule people, 2:48, 171 Baule pygmies, 2:26 Jewish people, 2:174 BDS (the “Greens”), 4:14 Beads, 3:87 Beadwork, 1:88, 181–82 (Abb .) Bechuanaland, 1:92, 158 Bechuanaland Democratic Party (BDP), 1:92 Bechuanaland People's Party (BPP), 1:92 Bedié, Henry Conan, 2:169, 170 Bedouins, 2:48, 158, 194, 194 ; 4:124 (illust.) Bier, 2:68 Beja-Volk, 2:40 Belgian Colonialism, 1:155–56 Congo-Free State, 1:174 Gesetz in, 2:211–12 Rwanda-Urundi, 1 :105 von Rwanda, 3:217 and “scramble” for Africa, 1:153 Belgian Congo, 1:155–56, 171, 4:6 158 Ben Ali, Zine el-Abidine, 3:194, 4:123, 126 Ben Bella , Ahmed, 1:21, 1:78–79, 1:94 Benin, 1:79–84 (Map) (illustrated); Geography of, 1:79–81 Geography of, 1:79 Politics and Government of, 1:81–83 People and Cultures of, 1:83–84 Precolonialism, 3:140 disposable royal works, 2:189 and voodoo, 4 :138–39 Benin City, 1:48, 1:84 Benjedid, Chadli, 1:21 Benue Depression, 1:114

Berba people, 1:83 Berber languages, 2:203, 204, 4:120 Berber, 1:84–85 (illust.), 2:39, 40, 48 in the Atlas mountains, 1:71 Burial rituals below, 2: 159 dances of, 1:188 and desert trade route, 3:155 family life of, 2:58, 59 history of, 3:153, 155, 157 of Maghreb, 3:43 of Morocco, 3:91–93, 95 music of, 3: 107 rank below, 1:147 in Sahara, 4:2, 4 tattoos used by, 1:87 and Timbuktu, 4:90 in Tunisia, 4:125 in Western Sahara, 4:145 Berlin Conference, 1:163, 167 , 2:133 Beshir, 'Umar Hasan Ahmad al-, 4:69–71 Beta Israel, 2:36, 174 Beti, Mongo, 1:85–86, 3:25 people of the Betsimisaraka, 3:42 Biafra, 1:2 , 3:143 Bidonvilles, 1:139 Big Hole Mine (South Africa), 4:49 (Fig.) Biko, Steve, 1:86, 4:52 Bilateral Descent (Relationship), 2:193 Schistosomiasis, 1:214 Bilma, Niger, 4:2 Bini People, 2:49 Birds, 4:148 Birth Rates, 2:119 Biya, Paul, 1:117–18 Black American Creoles, 1:185 Black Consciousness Movement, 1:86, 4:52 Black Homelands , 4:51 Black Skin, White Masks (Fanon), 2:60 Black Volta River, 2:92–93 Blood Knot (Fugard), 2:78 Blyden, Edward Wilmot, 1:86, 1:210 Bocchus, 3: 156 Body ornaments and clothing, 1:87–89 Beadwork for, 1:181–82 (illustrated) jewellery, 1:182 (illustrated) Boer War, 4:48, 57 (illustrated), 59 Boers, 1:158, 4:57–59 Boghossian, Skunder, 2:38 Bokassa, Jean-Bédel, 1:90, 1:124 Bongo, Albert-Bernard (El Hadj Omar), 2:82 book publisher, 3:194 Booth, Joseph, 1: 131, 3:192 Borans, 2:36 border disputes, 2:91, 133 borders. See Borders in Africa

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Index Bornu, 1:90–91, 2:178, 4:36 Botha, Louis, 4:48 Botha, Pieter W., 4:53 Botswana, 1:91–94 (map) AIDS in, 1:14 Famine Relief Program in, 2:149–50 geography and economy of, 1:91–92 hereditary rank in, 1:147 history and government of, 1:92–93 Khama, President of, 1:92, 2:185–86 peoples and Cultures of, 1:93–94 Botswana National Front (BNF), 1:93 Boudiaf, Mohammad, 1:22 Boukman, 1:207–8 Boumédienne, Houari, 1:21, 1:94 Borders in Africa, 1:94 94–95 Bourguiba, Habib, 1:95–96, 1:161 (Fig.), 4:123 Bouteflika, Abdelaziz, 1:22 Braide, Garrick Sokari, 1:96, 3:189 Brazilian African population in, 1 :189, 207 architectural influence of, 1:59 Brazzaville, Pierre Savorgnan of, 1:97, 175 (fig.), 176, 2:74, 81, 4:117 Brazzaville, 1:97 bread, 2:66 brows , 2:68 Bridewealth, 2:194, 3:63–65 Brink, Andrew, 1:97 Great Britain. See Britain British Colonialism, 1:156–60 architectural influence of, 1:59 Asante attacks during, 1:15 and Asante Union, 1:69 in Bornu, 1:90–91 in Cameroon, 1:114, 116 and Cetshwayo, 1:126 in Egypt, 2:18 and Fante State, 1:15 in Ghana, 1:108, 2:94 in Kenya, 2:180–81, 3:120 languages during, 2:207–8 law in, 2:211 Lugard, Administrator during, 3:31–32 Mau Mau opposition to, 3:67–69 in Mauritius, 3:74 justifying myths, 4:171 in Nigeria, 3:140–41, 141, 143 and the Nile, 3:149 and political liberty for colonies, 2:155 Rhodes, Cecil, 3:212 St. Helena, 4:5–6 and "Scramble" for Africa, 1:153 in South Africa, 1:5

230

in Sudan, 4:67–68 in Tanganyika, 4:82–83 Thuku, Kenyan political leader, 4:90 in Togoland, 4:93 in Uganda, 4:129–30 in Zambia, 4:164 British Creoles, 1: 164; 185 British Somaliland, 1:158 Broadleaf Savannas, 2:3, 4 Brong People, 2:98 Brotherhoods, Islamic, 4:15 Bruce, James, 4:115 Bad People, 2:26 Buganda, 4:129 , 130 Kagwa, Prime Minister of, 2:176 Mutesa II, Ruler of, 3:115, 3:115 building materials, 1:54, 2:138 Bulsa people, 2:97 Bunyoro, 4:129 Bunyoro-Kitara, 2:1 burial, 1 :191–93 (fig.). See also Burials in Ancient Egypt, 2:11–12 of Madagascans, 3:39 pole sculptures, 1:64 in pyramids, 3:196–97 Burkina Faso, 1:98–102 (map) (fig.), : 96 annex in, 1:11 (Fig.) Geography and Economy of, 1:98 History and Government of, 1:99–102 Mossi People, 3:96 Peoples and Cultures, 1:100 (Fig.), 102 Burton , Sir Richard Francis, 1:103, 3:149, 4:116 Burundi, 1:103–8 (map) Geography and Economy of, 1:103–4 History and Government of, 1:105–7 (Fig.); Peoples and culture of, 1:104–5 and Rwanda, 3:218 Bushmen (San), 2:186 Busia, Kofi A., 1:108–9, 2:95 Buthelezi, Gatsha, 4:54 Buyoya, Pierre, 1:106–7 buzzer instruments, 3:113 Bwiti cult, 3:208 (illust.) Byzantine Empire in Egypt, 2:15–16 Ethiopian monks from, 2:38

C Cabinda, 1:25, 1:109 Art, 1:28

Forestry in, 1:27 Petroleum in, 1:27 Cabora Bassa, 3:103, 4:162 Cabral, Amílcar Lopes, 1:110, 2:110, 111, 3:172 Cabral, Luis, 2:111 Caesar, Julius , 1:147 Caillié, René, 4:116 Cairo, 1:110–11 (ill.), 2:140 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, 2:141 Calendar and Time, 1:112–13 Calligraphy, 1:68 –69 (fig.) Camara Laye, 1:113–14, 3:25 camels, 4:42 dromedaries, 1:32, 33 (fig.) race, camel, 1:85 (fig.) Cameroon, 1:114 –18 (map) as British colony, 1:156 folk dance masks of, 3:66 (fig.) as French colony, 1:162 geography and economy of, 1:114–15 as German colony, 1:163 history and government of , 1:115–18 Corn cultivation, 1:12 (illustrated) Peoples and cultures of, 1:116 (illustrated), 118 Cameroon National Union (CNU), 1:117 Camp David Accords, 3: 93 Canary Islands, 1 :119 Cancer, 1:217 Candomblé, 1:208, 209 Cape Colony, 1:158, 4:137 Cape Colored People, 1:119, 1:185, 2:48, 4:49 Cape Malays, 1:185 Cape Town , 1:120, 4:102 (Fig.), 138 Cape Verde, 1:120–22 (Fig.) and Guinea-Bissau, 2:110, 111 Pereira, President of, 3:172 as a Portuguese colony, 1: 165 Capitalism as a development model, 1:199 and work organization, 2:197 caravans, 3:29 (ill.) Cardoso, Mãe Julia da Silva, 1:180 carnival. See Festivals and Carnivals Carthage, 1:122, 3:214, 215, 4:123 Carved Figures, 1:61, 62 Carvings, 1:183, 184 Casamance (Senegal), 4:15 Kasbah, 1:143 Kasbah of Ait Benhaddou, 3:94 (illustrated) Casely-Hayford, Joseph, 3:23 Cash crops, 1:10–11 labor needs, 2:199 and lack of food crops, 1:13

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Index Cassava, 1:9, caste 214. See class structure and caste Catholic Church, 3:101, 4:77, 153 cats, 1:32 cattle, 3:87 domestication of, 1:31–32, 42, 43 as movable Fortune, 1:76 Zebu, 1:32 Ceddo (Sembène), 4:11 Cemeteries, 1:45 Central Africa. See also Archeology and prehistory of certain countries of, 1:49 (map), 51–53 (fig.) Beadwork in, 1:181 British colonies in, 1:158–59 Climate of, 1:149 Countries included in, 1: 51 decorative arts of, 1:68 ethnic groups of, 1:74, 2:44–46 French colonialism in, 1:162 influence of Islam in, 2:128–29 literature in, 3:25–26 masks of, 1 : 64, 65 folk culture of, 3:182 pygmies in, 3:196 sculpture of, 1:64 slave trade in, 4:30, 34 village houses in, 2:42 Central African Federation, 3:33 Central African Federation, 1 :122–23 , 1:159, 4:164, 172 Central African Republic, 1:123–26 (map) Bokassa, President of, 1:90 Economy of, 1:123–24 as a French colony, 1:162 History of, 1:124 , 125 Peoples and Cultures of, 1:125–26 Central Highlands (Angola), 1:25 Cervical, 1:217 Cetshwayo, 1:126, 4:58 Ceuta, 1:167 Cewa, 2:48 Chad, 1:126 –28 as French colony, 1:162 as part of French Equatorial Africa, 2:75 Tombalbaye President of, 4:97 Chad Plain, 1:114 Chad Progressive Party, 4:97 Chadian language group, 2:203 Chaga (Chagga) people, 2:44, 48 The Chain of Voices (Brink), 1:97 Chakali people, 2:97 Chama Cha Mapinduzi, 4:83 Chapbooks, 3:194 Charismatic Churches, 3:84 , 190–1991 Chella (Morocco) , 3:156 (fig.) Chewa people, 2:48, 3:50

Chickens, 1:34 Chicly, Hayde, 1:138 Chicly, Shemama, 1:138 Chiefs, 2:104 Child care, 1:128, 129 (illust.) Childhood and youth, 1:128–30 Children dance as education for, 1:188 starvation dead, 2:147 AIDS orphans, 1:14 poor health care, 2:119 in war, 4:142 (illust.) Chilembwe, John, 1:131 Chiluba, Frederick, 4:165 China, descendants of African slaves in , 1:204 Chinese in Africa , 1:131 mapping of , 3:60 voyages and exploration by , 4:113-14 Chokwe people , 2:48 Chokwe people ( Angola ) , 1:28 , 66 chordophones , 3 :113 Chotts, 1:17 Christianity in Africa, 1:132–36 in Algeria, 1:19 architectural influence of, 1:58 art themes related to, 1:62 Braide, missionary, 1:96 churches of, 3 :190 –92 Copts, 1:112, 1:179 and Prophecy, 1:218 Early history of, 1:132–33 (illust.) in East Africa, 1:38 Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 2:38 Monophysites, 1:16, 24 , 179 Mvemba Nzinga, successor of, 3:115 new instructions in, 1:133–36 (illustrated) and slave trade, 4:27, 34 and written versions of African languages, 2:204 and Zara Ya' iqob, 4:169 Christian National Education (CNE), 2:7 Christian Party, 2:176 Church Missionary Society, 3:82 Church of Jesus Christ on Earth Through the Prophet Simon Kimbangu, 2:187 Churches, 3:189–92 Ethiopian, 2:37 , 38 Houphouët-Boigny's gift of, 2:168 Cinema, 1:136–38 (illust.) in Burkina Faso, 1:99 Sembène, director, 4:11 Cintra, Pedro de, 4:21 Circumcision , female, 2: 89, 180-81 Cisse, Souley-Mane, 1:138

Cities and Urbanization, 1:138–43 (illustrated) and Changing Diets, 2:70 Islamic Laws for Planning, 2:210 in North Africa, 1:142–43 Sub-Saharan Africa, 1:139–42 (illust.) in Zambia, 4:165 citrus, 1:10 city of the dead (Cairo), 2:140 civil rights, injuries, 2:141 civil wars in Algeria, 1:22 in Angola, 1:109 in Belgian Congo, 1:174– 75 as ethnic group conflicts, 2:39 genocide in, 2:91–92 rape and violence as weapons in, 2:141 in Rwanda, 3:218–19 in Sierra Leone, 4:24–26 (illustr.) in Somalia, 4:43 in Sudan, 4:69 in Zaire, 1:177 clans, 2:192 Akan, 1:15 in Kenya, 2:184 class structure and caste, 1:143–47 (fig.) of Burundi, 1:105 Clothing as an indicator of, 1:88 Mali, 3:55 modern systems of, 1:146–47 São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:8 Senegal, 4:16 traditional class systems, 1:143–46 (illustrated) Clegg, Johnny, 3:111 Cleopatra, 1:147–48, 3:214 Click languages, 2:205 Clientage, 1:144 Climate, 1:148–50 (illustrated. ). See also ecosystems; Geography ancient changes in, 2:71 and diseases, 1:214 drought, 1:197–98 of Equatorial Guinea, 2:24 influencing factors, 1:148, 149 historical, of West Africa, 2:128 maritime, 1:148 regional, 1:149–50 of the Sahara, 1:45,47, 2:124 clinics, medical, 2:120–22 (figs.) cloth, 1:183, 3:87, 89 clothing, 1:87–89 (illust .) hats, 1:181 Ntshak, 1:183 textiles used, 1:183 traditional Muslims, 3:152 (illus.) carnations, 4:5

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Index Clubs, Dance, 1:189 Coal, 2:21, 3:77 (Map) Coastal Ecosystems, 2:1 Coastal Fisheries, 2:63–64 Cocoa, 1:10, 4:7 Coetzee, J.M., 1:150 Coffee, 1:10, 3:217, 218, 220 Cokwe people, 2:48 expansion of African studies during the Cold War, 1:4 political financial aid during, 1:201 Colenso, John William, 1:151 Collection of Vocabularies of Central African Languages (Barth), 1:77 Collections, Art, 1:61–62 Colleges and Universities, 2:7, 9 Colonial Festivals, 2:62 Colonialism in Africa, 1:151–67 (Map) of Belgium, 1:155–56 and Ethnic Division, 2:44 of France, 1:160–63 (illust.) of Germany, 1:166–64 of Great Britain, 1:156–60 History, 2:131–33 and Independence Movements, 2:153 of Italy , 1:164, 165 land holdings in, 2:202 modern ethnic conflicts resulting from, 2:90, 91 overview of, 1:151–55 (illust.) Portugal, 1:165–66 (fig.) protests against, 3:46 social impacts of, 1:154, 155 Spain, 1:166–67 and ethnic groups, 4:118 colonial era, 1:4. See also specific topics, e.g. B.: French colonization of Arabs in Africa during, 1:39–40 architecture in, 1:58–59 in Bénin, 1:81 demarcation of borders during, 1:95 in Burkina Faso, 1:99 in Cameroon, 1:115–17 Cinema during, 1:136 currency during, 3:89 in the DRC, 1:174–75 development in, 1:198 Diop, political leader during, 1:212 economies during, 1:225 education during, 2:5 –7 Emin Pasha, Governor during, 2:20–21 Forestry in, 2:73 in Gabon, 2:81

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Government during, 2:106 in Guinea, 2:108 History of Africa during, 2:133–34 Indian communities during, 2:157 Ivory Coast during, 2:167–68 in Kenya, 2:180 Labor systems during, 2:197–98 Law in, 2:210–13 of Libya, 3:14 literature in, 3:19 mining during, 3:78–80 in Mozambique, 3:100–1 in Niger, 3:133 in Rwanda, 3:217 in Senegal , 4:13–14 in Somalia, 4:41–42 in Tanzania, 4:82–83 theater during, 4:87 in Togo, 4:92, 93 trade during, 4:104 transport in, 4:106–7 Urban development in, 1:139–41 in Zambia, 4:164 in Zanzibar, 1:77 color, symbolism of, 3:119 Congress of colored people, 4:52 “colored people”, 1:36, 185 Columbus, Christopher, 1: 119 Coming of Age, 2:158 Commercial Fisheries, 2:64–65 Citizens, 1:144 Municipal Work, 2:199 Communism, 1:82, 101, 2:34, 4:54, 99 South African Communist Party, 4:49– 50, 54 communities by age, 1:144, 145 (illust.) European, 2:54–56 Indian, 2:157 Islamic, 1:55, 146 Lebanese, 3:2 respect for elders in, 1:5 small villages , 2:102–3 community development, 1:201–2 Comoros (Ngazija), 2:48 Comoros, 1:167–68, 3:64 (Fig.) as a French colony, 1:163 wedding dress/jewellery in, 3: 64 (Fig.) Company of Merchants Trading to Africa, 3:198 Compaoré, Blaise, 1:101-2 Compounds (Architecture), 1:53 Conakry, 1:169 Concession Companies, 2:74-75 Condominium, 4:67

Confederation of Tribal Associations of Katanga, 4:119 Congo Basin, 1:172 Congo (Brazzaville), 1:169–72 Brazzaville, Capital of, 1:97 as French Colony, 1:162 History, Government and Economy of, 1 :169– 72 (illust.) Land and people of, 1:172 as part of French Equatorial Africa, 2:75 Congo Free State, 1:155, 171 Congo (Kinshasa), 1:156, 1:172–77 (map) Economy of , 1:176–77 history and government of, 1:173–75 Kinshasa, capital of, 2:191–92 masks of, 1:66 peoples and cultures of, 1:177 Tshombe, President of, 4 :119 Congo River , 1:173, 1:178–79 Congress of Democrats, 4:52 Conrad, Joseph, 1:175 The Conservationist (Gordimer), 2:101 Constitutional monarchies, 2:191 Construction, 1:55, 2 :138 Conté, Lansana, 2:109 Contract farming, 2:200 People's Party Congress (CPP), 2:94, 95, 3:149 Conversations with Ogotemmeli (Griaule), 3:116 Cooking, 2:67 (illust.), 108 copper, 3:77 (Map), 79 Coptic Christianity, 1:112, 1:179, 2:16, 4:77 Coral Reefs, 2:1 Corn, 1:10 Coronary Artery Disease, 1:217 Correia, Mãe Aurélia, 1:180 Cosmetics, 1 :87 Costa, Manuel Pinto da, 4:7 Ivory Coast. See Ivory Coast Council for the People's Salvation (CSP), 1:101 Covilhã, Pedro da, 4:114 Crafts, 1:181–84 (fig.) Basketry, 1:181, 184 (fig.) Beadwork, 1:181 –82 (Fig.) carving, 1:183, 184 jewelry, 1:182 (Fig.) pottery, 1:182–83 textiles, 1:183 creoles, 2:203, 205 creoles, 1:185–86, 1 :210, 2:26, 49, 74, 4:23 Crops, 1:8–11 in Angola, 1:27 Cash vs Food, 1:13

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Index famines and crop failures, 2:148 root, 1:9 seed, 1:9 crows of the Arabs, 1:204 Crowther, Samuel Ajayi, 1:134–35, 1:186, 3:83 Crusades, 2:16, 32 Cry, the Beloved Country (Paton), 3:24, 168 Cuba, 1:28 Cugano, Ottoban, 1:206, 4:32 Cultivation, 1:11–12 (illus.) Cults, 1:218 Healing, 2: 115 Honoring ancestors, 1:6 culture(s) of Africans in America, 1:207–8 of Angola, 1:29–31 related architectural styles, 1:53 of Bénin, 1:83–84 of Botswana, 1:93 –94 Burkina Faso, 1:100 (ill.), 102 Burundi, 1:104–5 Cameroon, 1:116 (ill.), 118 Central African Republic, 1:125–26 Congo (Kinshasa), 1:177 dance, 1:187–90 (fig.) of Egypt, 2:11, 12 of Equatorial Guinea, 2:26 of Ethiopia, 2:35–37 food and 2:68–69 of Ghana, 2:96–98 hunting and gathering, 2:150-51 influences outside of Africa, 1:211 from Ivory Coast, 2:171 from Kenya, 2:184 from Lesotho, 3:6-7 from Liberia, 3:11-12 connection between Christianity and traditional African, 1: 134 from Madagascar, 3:42, 43 from Malawi, 3:51 from Mali, 3:55–56 from Mauritania, 3:73 from Morocco, 3:95 from Mozambique, 3:103 Namibia, 3:124–25 Niger, 3:135 Nigeria, 3:145, 146 North Africa, 3:153-60 role of photography in, 3:174-75 popular culture, 3:180-84 of Rwanda, 3:220-21 of Senegal, 4:16, 17 of Sierra Leone, 4:26–27 of Somalia, 4:46 of South Africa, 4:56 of Sudan, 4:71

of Swaziland, 4:79 of Tanzania, 4:84–85 theater related to, 4:86–89 of Togo, 4:96 of Tunisia, 4:125, 126 of Uganda, 4:133 of Zambia, 4:167 of Zimbabwe, 4:175-76 currency, 3:87-89, 182 Cushitic language group, 2:203-4 common law, 2:209, 211, 213 cyanide poisoning, 1:214 Cyrenaica, 3:214 Cyrene, Libya, 3:157

D Daar, Aden Abdullah Osman, 4:42 Dacko, David, 1:90, 124, 2:75 Daddah, Mokhtar Ould, 3:71 Dagaba, 2:97 Dagara, 2:97 Dagomba, 2:97 Dahomey, 1: 79, 81, 162, 2:49, 76 dairy, 2:67 Dakar, 1:187, 2:63 (illustrated), 76 Dams, 2:161 Dance, 1:187–90 (illustrated) Clubs, dance , 1:189 masks used in, 1:181 Reed Dance, 2:62 (illust.) A Dance of the Forests (Soyinka), 3:23, 4:60 Dangarembga, Tsitsi, 3:24 Dankaran- Tuma, 4: 76 Dar es Salaam, 1:190–91 Darwin, Charles, 2:142 databases, genealogical, 1:204 dates, 1:10 dating, 1:112–13 Dawlat al-Zanj, 1:204 The Day of Reckoning (Shaaban ), 4:19 Days, 1:113 De Beers Consolidated Mines, 3:212 Death, Grief and Ancestors, 1:191–95 AIDS, Deaths of, 1:14 Death and Burial, 1:191–93 (illustr.) deaths from starvation, 2:147–48 infectious diseases, deaths from, 2:119 rituals surrounding death, 2:159 role of ancestors in, 1:193–95 debts, national, 1:199, 200 , 226 Déby, Idriss, 1:128 decoration. See also Body Adornment and Clothing from Works of Art, 1:61 from Buildings, 1:55

Decorative Arts, 1:67–69 (Fig.) Deforestation, 2:4, 71–73, 3:179 (Fig.) De Gaulle, Charles, 1:21, 222 De Graft, Joe, 3:23 De Klerk, Frederik Willem, 1:37, 1:195–96, 2:105 (illustrated), 3:58, 4:53 Democratic Assembly of Africa, 4:98 Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire (PDCI), 2:137 , 168 , 169 Democratic Republic of the Congo. See Congo (Kinshasa) Dendi people, 3:136 Denham, Dixon, 4:116 Denkyira, 1:15 Dervishes, 1:188 Ancestry, relations of, 2:57 Description of Africa (Leo Africanus), 3:3 Desert wind ( Film), 1:138 desertification, 1:197–98 deserts and drought, 1:196–98 (fig.), 2:1–2 and agricultural production, 1:13 Algerian Sahara, 1:18 in Egypt, 2 : 14 Kalahari Desert, 2:176–77 (Fig.) Namib Desert, 1:196, 2:2 Sahara Desert, 4:1–4 (Fig.) Trade routes through, 3:155 Desta, Gebre Kristos, 2 : 37–38 Destour Party, 4:123 Development, Economic and Social Affairs, 1:198–202 (illustrated), 2:125–27 Challenge, 1:198–99 Community Development and Local Government, 1:201–2 Islamic Influence on, 2:127–29 and metal technology, 2:125 and reforms, 1:199–201 Dhlomo, Herbert, 4:87 Dia, Mamadou, 4:14 Diagne, Blaise, 1:202–3 diamond mines, 3:78, 79 ( Fig.), 4:49 (Fig.) Diamonds, 3:77 (map), 79, 4:58 in Botswana, 1:91, 92 in South Africa, 4:48, 58 slides, Bartolomeu, 2:83, 4 :114 Diaspora, African, 1:203–11 (illustr.) to America, 1:206–10 to Asia and Europe, 1:203–6 cultural influences resulting from, 1:211 and back to Africa, 1:210– 11 Dictatorship in Cameroon, 1:117 and Misery Index, 1:199 in Zaire, 1:175 A Mind's Dilemma (Aidoo), 4:88

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Index Din, Izz al-, 4:89 Din, Nasr al-, 4:12-13 Dingiswayo, 1:211 Dinka, 1:67, 2:43, 49, 4:69 Diop, Alioune, 1:212, 3 :25 Diop, Cheikh Anta, 1:212 Diori, Hamani, 3:133 Diouf, Abdou, 4:14–15 Diseases, 1:213–17 (illustrated), 2:119 AIDS, 1:14–15 Cults of Healing dedicated, 2:115 ideas of, 2:115–16 contagious, 1:213–15 non-contagious, 1:217 as a result of famine, 2:148 sexually transmitted diseases, 1:14 sleeping sickness, 2:127 shame (Coetzee) , 1:150 Diula people. See dula. Prophecy and Oracles, 1:208, 1:218–19 (illustrated), 2:118, 3:210 Divorce, 3:64, 65 Djerma, 3:133 Djibouti, 1:3, 1:220–21 Djinguereber, 3 :59, 4:90 Djoser, 3:196 documentaries, 1:136–38 Doe, Samuel, 3:10–11 Dogon, 2:49 afterlife beliefs of, 1:192 architecture of, 1:55 dances of, 1:190 Diviners of, 1:218, 219 (illustrated) Myths of, 3:116 Sculpture of, 1:63 Domestic animals, 1:31–35 (illustrated) Housework, 2:201 Donatists, 1:19 Donkeys, 1:33 , 34 (illus.) Double Descent (Kinship), 2:193 Douglass, Frederick, 1:204, 208 Dowry, 3:65 Dramouss (Camara Laye), 1:114 Dreams, 1:218 Dress. See clothing drink. See food and drink dromedaries. See camels. Dryness. See Deserts and Drought Drugs, 2:116 Drum (South African newspaper), 3:194 Drums, 3:114 Du Bois, W.E.B., 1:221, 3:130 Dufona canoe, 1:47 Dulama, Abu, 1:204 Dutch Cape Colony, 4:57–58 Architectural Influence of Dutch Colonialism, 1:59 in South Africa, 4:56–58

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Van Riebeeck, Administrator, 4:137–38 Dutch Creoles, 1:185 Dyula (Diula) people, 2:49

E Early Stone Age, 1:42, 44, 46 East African Association (EAA), 4:90 East Africa. See also specific countries AIDS in, 1:14 Arab influence on, 1:37–38 Archeology and Prehistory of, 1:48–51 (map) British colonies in, 1:157–58 Chinese in, 1:131 Climate of, 1:150 included countries in, 1:48 decorative arts in, 1:68 energy resources in, 2:21 ethnic groups and identity in, 2:42–44 European settlements in, 2:55 French colonialism in, 1:163 higher education in, 2:9 Islam in, 2:128-29, 162-63 ivory trade in, 2:171 king lists of, 1:113 literature in, 3:23-24 Luo, 3:33 Maasai, 3:35 masks of, 1:65 music by, 3:109–10 painting by, 1:67 popular culture by, 3:182 rock art by, 3:213 sculpture by, 1:64 slave trade by, 4:30–32 Swahili by, 4:77 urban growth in, 1:141–42 eating habits, 2:68–69 Ebola virus, 1:215 Éboué, Adolphe-Félix-Sylvestre, 1:221–22 Éboué, Félix, 2:75 economic aid, 2:99, 100 for Bénin , 1:81 Impact, 1:201 for Gambia, 2:84, 86 for Ghana, 2:96 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 2:100, 4:25 Economic Development. See Development, Economic and Social Economic History, 1:222–26 (illustrated) colonial, 1:225

postcolonial, 1:225–26 precolonial, 1:222–25 economy of Angola, 1:25–27 of Benin, 1:79–81 of Botswana, 1:91–92 of Burundi, 1:103–4 of Burkina Faso , 1:98 Cameroon, 1:115 Canary Islands, 1:119 Central African Republic, 1:123–24 Chad, 1:128 Colonial, 1:154, 2:133–34 Comoros, : 168 of Congo (Brazzaville), 1 :171-72 of Congo (Kinshasa), 1:176-77 of Djibouti, 1:220 of Equatorial Guinea, 2:24-25 (illus.) of Eritrea, 2:28 as a factor in slavery, 4:36 and family life, 2:59 fisheries, 2:63–65 of food, 2:69–71 of Gabon, 2:79–81 (illus.) of Gambia, 2:84 (illus . ) sex and changes in, 2:88 of Ghana , 2:94 of Guinea, 2:108, 109–10 of Guinea-Bissau, 2:111–12 history of, 1:222–26 of Ivory Coast, 2:108 ; 166, 168, 170 of Johannesburg, 2:172, 173 of Kenya, 2:183–84 of Lesotho, 3:6 of Liberia, 3:7–8 of Libya, 3:16–17 of Madagascar, 3:42 of Malawi, 3:48–50 of Mali, 3:54 Markets, 3:61–62 of Mauritania, 3:69, 70 of Morocco, 3:93–94 of Mozambique, 3:102–3 of Namibia, 3:1 , 124 of Niger, 3:132 of Nigeria, 3:144–45 and peasants, 3:170 in the postcolonial period, 2:135–36 of Réunion, 3:211 role of women in, 4:155 of Rwanda, 3 :155; 220 of Sahara, 4:3-4 of São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:7, 8 of Senegal, 4:15 of Sierra Leone, 4:26 of Somalia, 4:45-46 of South Africa, 4 :54, 55 des Sudan, 4:70-71

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Index of Swaziland, 4:79 of Tanzania, 4:84 of Togo, 4:95 Tourism, 4:99–100 of Tunisia, 4:124–25 of Uganda, 4:132–33 of Zambia, 4:165–67 (Fig.) of Zanzibar, 4:169 of Zimbabwe, 4:175 Ecosystems, 2:1–4 (Fig.). See also specific ecosystems Ecotourism, 4:99–100 Edo (Bini) people, 2:49 Edo language, 3:140 Education, 2:4–9 (illust.). See also schools colonial, 2:5–7 dance as form of, 1:188 films used, 1:137 as focus of Christian activity, 1:135 literacy, 3:17–18 postcolonial, 2:7–9 role of women in , 4:155, 156 in South Africa, 4:56 Efuru (Nwapa), 3:26, 163 Egypt Alexandria, 1:16–17 old, 1:41, 2:10–14 (illust.) Arab invasion of, 1 :37 Archeology in, 1:45–46 British Government in, 1:159, 160 Cairo, capital of, 1:110–11 (Fig.) Cats domesticated in, 1:32 Cleopatra, Queen of, 1:147–48 Coptic Christians in, 1:179 Irrigation in, 2:159, 161 Islam in, 2:162 Ivory trade in, 2:171 Mahfouz, writers, 3:45 Modern, 2:14–15, 2:14–30 (map) , 2:15–20 films in, 1:138 Mubarak, President of, 3:104 Mythology of, 3:116 Nasser, President of, 3:125 and the Nile, 3:148, 149 Pyramids of, 1:53– 54, 3:196–97 and Roman Africa, 3:214, 215 rule of Sudan by, 4:67–68 Sadat, President of, 4:1 and Suez Canal, 4:74 and Theater, 4: 87 history written in, 1:41 Ekwensi, Cyprian, 2:20 Eland, 3:213 Elderhood (in class systems), 1:143-44 Elders. See Aging and Aging of Power Generation and Distribution, 2:22

Elephants, 2:171–72, 4:148 ELF (Eritrean Liberation Front), 2:27 elite class, 1:146 Elizabeth I, 1:206 Elmina (archaeological site), 1:48 Emin Pasha, 2:20–21, 4:64 Energy and Energy Resources, 2:21–24 (illustrated) The Black Child (Camera Laye), 1:113 England. See Great Britain, English language, 2:203, 205, 3:22–24 Henry, Prince of Portugal, 4:114 Enset, 1:9 Entebbe, 1:24, 4:129 EPLF (Eritrean People's Liberation Front), 2: 129; 27 EPRDF (Ethiopian Revolutionary Democratic Front), 2:35 Equatorial Africa, 1:149 Equatorial Guinea, 2:24–26 Genocide in, 2:141 History, Economy and Culture of, 2:24–26 ( Fig. ) Land and climate of , 2:24 Equiano, Olaudah, 2:27, 3:22, 4:32 Eritrea, 2:27–28 Arab influence on, 1:38 border guard in, 3:128 (fig. ) Christianity in, 1:132 churches in, 1:58 and Ethiopia, 2:33–35 (illustrated) Ethiopian Orthodox Church in, 2:38 as an Italian colony, 1:164 Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), 2:27 Eritrean Popular Liberation Front (EPLF) , 2:27 Ethiopia, 2:29–38 (map) Addis Ababa, capital of, 1:3 Amhara peoples in, 1:23–24 Arab influence on, 1:37 archaeological sites in, 1:37.50 Christianity in, 1:132, 3:81, 82, 4:114, 115 Churches in, 1:58 Protohistory, 2:30–32 and Eritrea, 2:27, 28, 33–35 (fig.); European Confederation of, against Muslims, 1:205–6 Fasiladas, Emperor of, 2:60–61 Gadamotta archaeological site in, 1:49–50 Galawdevos, Emperor of, 2:82–83 Geography and Economy of, 2:29 –30 History of, since 1600, 2:32–35 (illust.) Islam in, 2:162 Italian control of, 1:164–65

Literature in, 3:20 Mengistu, President of, 3:75 Menilek II, Emperor of, 3:75 Monophysite Christians in, 1:16 Painting in, 1:67 Peoples and Cultures of, 2:35–38 Selassie, Emperor of , 2:112 Susenyos, Emperor of, 4:77 Tewodros, Emperor of, 4:85–86 Water supplies in, 1:200 (illust.) Zara Ya'iqob, Emperor of, 4:169 Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 1st : 169; 16, 2:35, 2:38, 4:77 Ethnic Groups and Identity, 2:35 Ethiopia Unbound (Casely-Hayford), 3:23 Ethnic Groups and Identity, 2:39–47. See also Ethnic groups and peoples in Central Africa, 2:44–46 (illustrated) conflicts resulting from, 2:90, 92 in East Africa, 2:41–44 (illustrated) the Harratin people, 2:40 multi-ethnic societies, 2: 44–45 in North Africa and Sudan, 2:39–40 in Southern Africa, 2:46–47 Tribalism, 4:117–19 (illust.) in West Africa, 2:41–42 Ethnic Groups and Peoples . . . . See also specific groups of Abidjan, 1:1 Algeria, 1:17–19 of Angola, 1:29–31 Arabic-Berber, 1:19 related architectural styles, 1:53 of Benin, 1:83–84 and Berlin border decisions of the Conference, 2:133 of Botswana, 1:93–94 and boundary lines, 1:94 of Burkina Faso, 1:100 (illust.), 102 of Burundi, 1:104–5, 105–7 of Cameroon, 1:116 (Fig.), 118 in Cape Town, 1:120 Central African Republic, 1:124, 125–26 Chad, 1:126 Diagram of, 2:47–54 and Class Structure, 1:146–26. 47 Effects of colonialism on 1:155 Congo (Brazzaville), 1:172 Congo (Kinshasa), 1:177 Creoles, 1:185 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1:177 Djibouti, 1:220 of Egypt, 2:15 of Equatorial Guinea, 2:26 of Eritrea, 2-2

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Index of Ethiopia, 2:35–37 Ethnography (study of), 1:42 fixed categories of, 2:42 of Gabon, 2:81 of Gambia, 2:86 of Ghana, 2:96–98, 97–98 Gikuyu , 2: 98–99 from Guinea, 2: 109 by Guinea-Bissau, 2: 110 Indians, 2: 157 from the Ivory Coast, 2: 171 by Johannesburg, 2: 172 by Kenya, 2: 184 by Lesotho, 3: 6 of Liberia, 3:11-12 of Libya, 3:13 of Madagascar, 3:42, 43 of Malawi, 3:51 of Mali, 3:55-56 of Mauritania, 3:73 of Morocco, 3:95 of Mozambique , 3:103 of Namibia, 3:124-25 of Niger, 3:135 of Niger and Delta, 3:136-37 of Nigeria, 3:145, 146 of North Africa, 3:151-53 of Republic of Congo, 1 :172 of Réunion, 3:211 of Rwanda, 3:220–21 of the Sahara, 4:2–3 of São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:8 of Senegal, 4:16, 17 of Sierra Leone, 4:26– 27 from Somalia, 4:46 from South Africa, 4:56 in Southern Africa, 2:186 from Sudan, 4:71 from Togo, 4:96 from Tunisia, 4:125 from Uganda, 4:133 in West Africa, 2:78 –79, 113–14 Western Sahara, 4:145 Zambia, 4:167 Zanzibar, 4:169 Zimbabwe, 4:175–76 ethnicity, 2:39, 43 ethnography, 1:42 Europe architectural influence from, 1:59 Diaspora to , 1:205–6 historical influence of, 2:129–31 slavery abolished by, 1:204, 206 sub-Saharan exploration of, 1:3–4 European colonialism, 1 :151–55, 2:132–34. See also specific topics, e.g. B. French colonialism set limits during, 1:95 Christian conversion as part of, 1:132

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and cinema production, 1:136 domination of culture during, 2:153 in Egypt, 2:18 and growth of cities, 1:143 and growth of political parties, 2:155 and independence movement, 2:155, 156 law in, 2: 209 in Libya, 3:14 in Morocco, 3:92 in Senegal, 4:13 urban development during, 1:139–41 European Communities, 2:54–56 travel and exploration, 4:111–12 (map), 114– 17 Eve, African, 2:147 Evil, 3:208-9 Ewedo, Oba, 1:84 Ewe language, 4:92 Ewe people, 2:49, 98, 4:92-94, 96 Exploration. See also Colonial and Post-Colonial Travel and Exploration, 1:4 and the Dispersal of Africans in Europe, 1:206 from Sub-Saharan Africa, 1:3–4 Explorers Barth, German, 1:77 Burton and Speke, British, 1:103 Emin Pasha, European, 2:20–21 Gama, Portuguese, 2:83 Livingstone, British, 3:30–31 Stanley, British, 4:64 Exports. For specific countries, see Economics in Colonial Economies, 1:225 Oil, 1:18–19 by slaves from Central Africa, 4:34 to Abidjan, 1:1 Eyadema, Étienne, 4:94–96 Ezana, 1:16

F Faat-Kine (Sembène), 4:11 Facing Mount Kenya (Kenyata), 3:23 Fagunwa, Daniel O., 3:22 Falasha people, 2:36 Family(s), 2:56–60 (Figs. ) Age and Aging, 1:5–8 (Fig.) Status Age in, 1:144 Changes in, 2:59–60 Childhood and Adolescence, 1:128–30

Division of labor in, 2:199 Gender roles among Muslims, 2:89 Inheritance among, 2:103 Islam and family life, 2:58, 59 Kinship, 2:192–94 (illust.) Marital systems, 3:63–94; 65 (illustrated) multiple wives in, 1:6 respect for elders in, 1:6 structure of, 2:57–58 famine, 2:147–50 (illustrated) and agricultural production, 1:13 in Ethiopia, : 34 Fang (Pahouin) people, 1:64, 2:26, 49 Fanon, Frantz, 2:60 Fante (Fanti) people, 1:15, 2:49, 94, 98, 4:9 Farah, Nuruddin, :21 Farmers and Farming, 2:200, 3:169-70. See also Agriculture Farouk, King of Egypt, 3:125 Fasiladas, 2:60–61, 4:77 Fatima, 3:158 Fatimid dynasty, 3:158–59 Fatimids, 1:110, 2:15–16, 4:77 ; 121 Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoro Islands (FIRCI), 1:167, 168 Women-Centered Societies, 1:212 Female Circumcision, 2:89, 180–81 “Female Fathers”, 2:194 Female Marriages, 2:90 Fernandes, António , 4:114, 115 Fernandinos, 1:185 Ouagadougou Pan-African Film and Television Festival (FESPACO), 1:99 Festivals and Carnivals, 2:61–62 (illust.) Fetishes, 1:62 Fig. 1:10 Film . See cinema financing. See Money and Banking Fishing, 1:27, 2:63-65 FLN. See National Liberation Front flood defenses. See Irrigation Flood cropping, 2:159, 160 Flying Doctors, 2:120 Foe (Coetzee), 1:150 Fon (Dahomean) people, 1:63, , 2:49 Food and Beverage, 2:65-71. See also Hunger and famine African foods, 2:65–68 (illust.) animals raised for, 1:33, 34 drink, 2:68 by early hominids, 2:144 eating habits, 2:68–69 economy of, 2 : 69-71

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Index imported, 1:13, 2:70 plants used for, 3:178 production of, historical, 2:123–24 for Ramadan, 2:61 street food, 2:70 taboos related to, 2:69 women and production of , 4:154–55 food crops, 1:13 forced labor, 2:199, 201 forests and forestry, 2:71–73 ecosystems, 2:71 ecosystems, forest, 2:4 restrictions on use of forests, 2:73 spirits of forests, 2:73 Utilization and Management, 2:71–73 (image) Forty Day Road, 4:28 Fossil Fuels, 3:77, 77 (map) Fossils, 2:142–45 (image) FPR . See Rwandan Patriotic Front France, African population in, 1:206 Franco-Madagassy War, 3:39 Free Officers, 3:125 Freedom Charter, 3:57 Freedom movement. See also Slave Independence Movements, 1:207–8 Mondlane, FRELIMO, 3:86 Freetown, 1:134, 2:73–74 FRELIMO. See Mozambique Liberation Front French Colonialism, 1:160-63 (ill.) in Algeria, 1:20 (ill.), 21, 78 in Bénin, 1:81-82 Brazzaville, 1:97 in Burkina Faso, 1:99 in Cameroon, 1:114, 116, 117 in the Central African Republic, 1:124 in Chad, 1:127 in the Comoros, 1:168 in the Congo region, 1:169–70 Éboué, Administrator during, 1:221–22 in French Equatorial Africa, 2:74–76 in French West Africa, 2:76–78 in Gabon, 2:81–82 in Guinea, 2:108, 4:97–99 in Ivory Coast, 2:167–68 languages during, 2:207 in Madagascar, 2:211 in Madagascar, 3:39–40 in Mali, 3:52 in Mauritania, 3:70 in Mauritius, 3:74 in Morocco, 3:92 in Niger, 3:136 and political freedom for colonies, 2:155, 156

and "Scramble" for Africa, 1:153 subjects; Citizens during, 1:160 in Togoland, 4:93 in Tunisia, 4:123 French Community, 1:162–63 French Congo, 1:162 French Creoles, 1:185 French Equatorial Africa, 1:162, 2:74 – 63. 76 French language, 3:24–26 French National Assembly, 1:202, 2:81, 4:17 French Somaliland, 1:163 French Sudan, 2:76, 3:52 French West Africa, 1:81, 162 , 162; 187, 2:76–78 (illustrated), 3:70 fruits, 1:10, 2:66, 69 fuels, alternative, 2:22 firewood, 2:21–22, 24 Fugard, Athol, 2:78, 69; 4:88 Fulani, Olu, 3:144 Fulani (Peul, Fulani) people, 1:116 (illust.), 2:49, 2:78–79 Bornu attacked by, 1:90 Bornu Jihad by, 2:178 in Burkina Faso, 1:102 in Cameroon, 1:118 in Gambia, 2:86 in Guinea, 2:109, 110 languages, 2:207 in Mali, 3:56 in Niger, 3:133, 136 of Nigeria, 3: 145 Trading by, 3:28, 29 Visual Number Systems Used by, 3:163 English people. See Englishman English (English, English) Language, 2:78, 4:137 Funerals. See also funeral music and dances in, 1:189 (fig.) in sub-Saharan Africa, 1:191–92 as transformation of deceased into ancestor, 1:194 Funj Sultanate (Sudan), 4:66 Sea Dogs, 3:192; 123 (Illustrated) Fustat, al-, 1:110 Futa Jalon, 2:108

G Ga people, 2:94 Gabon, 2:79–82 (map) as a French colony, 1:162 geography, peoples and economy of, 2:79–81 (illust.) history and government of, 2:81–82

as part of French Equatorial Africa, 2:75 Gaborone, Botswana, 1:91 Gabre-Medhim, Tse-gaye, 4:89 Gadamotta (archaeological site), 1:49–50 Gaji, Ali, 1:90 Galawdewos, 2: 32, 2:82–83 Galenia, Zulu Prince, 2:190 (illus.) Galla people, 2:52 Gama, Cristovão da, 2:82 Gama, Vasco da, 1:110, 2:83, 2:133, 4:114 Gambia, The, 2:83–86 as a British colony, 1:156 economy of, 2:84 (illustrated) geography of, 2:83 history and government of, 2:85–86 (illustrated) people of, 2:86 Gambia River, 2:83 Wildparks, 4:149–50 (illust.) Gamu People, 2:37 Ganda People, 1:157, 2:43, 49, 89 Ganda Political Party, 4:130 Gandhi , Mohandas K., 4:49 Garang, John, 4:69 Garcia V, 1:135 Garvey, Marcus Mosiah, 1:221, 2:86 (illustrated), 2:87, 3:127, 130, 167 gasoline subsidies, 3:140 Gazelle's Eye (film), 1:138 Gbagbo, Laurent, 2:170 Ge'ez language, 2:38, 3:20, 4:85 gender, ethnic identity and 2:44 and old experiences age, 1 :6 and Starvation, 2:147–48 and Burial Form, 1:192 Gender Roles and Sexuality, 2:87–90. See also men; Women Genealogy, 1:194 Tracing Databases, 1:204 Ancestry Relationships, 2:57 General Union of North African Workers, 4:98 General Union of Tunisian Workers, 4:134 Genocide and Violence, 2:90–92, 2:141 Geography. See also specific topics, e.g. B.: Deserts and drought and agricultural productivity, 1:222–23 on ancient Egypt, 2:10 on Angola, 1:25–27 on Bénin, 1:79 on Botswana, 1:91–92 on Burkina Faso, 1 :98 of Burundi, 1:103–4

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Index of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of of

Cameroon, 1:114–15 Canary Islands, 1:119 Chad, 1:126 Congo (Brazzaville), 1:172 Djibouti, 1:220 Equatorial Guinea, 2:24 Eritrea, 2:28 Ethiopia, 2:29–30 Gabon, 2:79-81 Gambia, 2:83 Ghana, 2:92-93 Guinea, 2:108 Guinea-Bissau, 2:110 Ivory Coast, 2:166 Johannesburg, 2:172 Kenya, 2:179-80 Liberia, 3: 7 Libya, 3:12–13 Madagascar, 3:36–37 Malawi, 3:46 Mali, 3:51–52 Mauritania, 3:69–70 modern Egypt, 2:14–15 Morocco, 3:46 90-91 Mozambique, 3:98 Namibia, 3:120-21 Niger, 3:132 Niger and Delta, 3:135, 136 Nigeria, 3:137-38 Nile and Delta, 3:147-48 North Africa, 3:150 –51 Réunion, 3:211 Rwanda, 3:215–16 Sahara, 4:1–2 Senegal, 4:11–12 Sierra Leone, 4:21 Somalia, :40–41 of South Africa, 4:46–48 of Sudan , 4:65–66 of Swaziland, 4:79 of Tanzania, 4:81–82 of Togo, 4:92 of Uganda, 4:128 of Western Sahara, 4:145 Zambia, 4:163 Zanzibar, 4:168 Zimbabwe , 4:170 Geopolitics. See World Politics and Africa Geraima, Haile, 1:138 German Colonialism, 1:163–64 in Burundi and Rwanda, 1:105 in Cameroon, 1:116 Maji Maji Rebellion, 3:45–46 in Namibia, 3:44 - 64; 45, 121–22 in Rwanda, 3:217 in Tanganyika, 4:82 in Togo, 4:92 Witbooi, Opponents of, 4:150–51

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and First World War, 4:156, 157 German East Africa, 1:163, 164, 190 Gesere, 3:196 Gezira (Sudan), 4:71 Ghana, 2:92–98 (map) Accra, capital of, 1: 1 ancient, 1:48 archaeological sites in, 1:47, 48 Asante (Ashanti), 1:69 Busia, chief minister of, 1:108–9 enclosed village in, 1:56 (Fig.) geography and economy of, 2nd :92–94 History and Politics of, 2:94–96 (Fig.) Nkrumah, President of, 3:149 Peoples and Cultures of, 2:96–98 Rawlings, President of, 3:203–4 Sarbah, Political Leader in, 4:8–9 Sudanic Empires, 4:72, 73 Ghazi, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-, 2:32 ghost marriages, 3:65 Gikuyu (Kikuyu) people, 1:157, 2:49, 2:98 –99, 2:184, 3:33, 35 dancers from, 1:89 (illust.) and Mau Mau, 2:181, 3:68 in Nairobi, 3:120 during World War I, 2:180 Gikuyu language , 2:98, 204 giraffes, 4:113 world politics and Africa, 2:99–100 goats, 1:33, 34, 4:42 gods and goddesses. See Religion and Ritual God's Bits of Wood (Sembène), 4:11 Gold, 1:224, 3:77–79 (map), 78, 87, 89 in South Africa, 1:5, 4:48, 58–59 Handel with, 4:103–5 in Witwatersrand mines, 2:172, 173 Gold Coast Accra, 1:1 British control over, 1:70, 156, 4:93 derivation of name for, 1:182 Sarbah, political leader in , 4:8–9 Gold Mining, 2:95 (Fig.) Golden Chair, 1:69, 70 Gondwanaland, 2:71 Gonja, 2:98 Gordimer, Nadine, 2:101, 3:27 (Fig.) Gordon, Charles George, 2:101, 2:186, 3:44 Gouled Aptidon, Hassan, 1:220, 221 Government and Political Systems, 2:102–7 (illustrated). See also Politics of Angola, 1:27–29 (fig.) of Bénin, 1:81–83 of Botswana, 1:92–93

of Burkina Faso, 1:99–102 of Burundi, 1:105–7 (fig.) of Cameroon, 1:118 of Cape Verde, 1:121 of Chad, 1:127–28 colonial, 1:153–54 colonial and Postcolonial Government, 2:106-7 and Colonial Education, 2:5 and Community Development, 1:202 Congo (Brazzaville), 1:170-71 Congo (Kinshasa), 1:173-76 and Development Potential, 1:198-200 of Djibouti, 1:220, 221 and economic aid, 1:201 economic role of, 1:226 and fixed ethnic categories, 2:42 of French West Africa, 2:76–77 of Gambia, 2:85–86 of Guinea, 2:108, 109 of Guinea-Bissau, 2:110, 111 and independence movement, 2:154-55 indigenous government, 2:102-6 indirect rule, 1:156, 157, 159 of Ivory Coast, 2:166-70 of Lesotho, 3:4, 5 of Liberia, 3:8–11 local, 1:202 of Madagascar, 3:38–42 of Malawi, 3:46–48 of Mali, 3:52–54 of Mauritania, 3: 70–73 of Mozambique, 3:98–102 of Namibia, 3:121–23 nationalism, 3:126–29 (illus.) of Niger, 3:133, 134 of Nigeria, 3:139–44 Réunion, 3: 211 São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:7 Senegal, 4:12-15 Sierra Leone, 4:21-26 Somalia, 4:41-44 South Africa, 4:48-54 Sudan, 4:66-70 Swaziland, 4:77 –78 Tanzania, 4:82–83 Togo, 4:92–95 Tunisia, 4:121–23 Uganda, 4:128–32 of Western Sahara, 4:145, 146 of Zambia, 4:164–65 of Zimbabwe, 4 :171–75 Gowon, Yakubu, 3:143 Grains (food), 2:65–66 Grains of Paradise, 2:108 Gran, Ahmed, 2:32, 82 Gran Canaria Island, 1:119

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Index Grande Comore, 1:167 Grapefruit, 1:10 Great Britain. See also British colonialism African populations in, 1:206 and control of Madagascar, 1:163 Resettlement of Africans from, 1:210 Slavery abolished in, 1:206 Great Depression, 4:50, 134 "The Great Mosque", 4: 90 Great Rift Valley, 2:30, 3:46 “Great Trek”, 2:196, 4:56–59 (illustr.) Great Zimbabwe, 1:41, 52, 76, 4:21, 171–72 Greater Johannesburg , 2:171–72 Greece, Antiquity, 1:56,57, 3:60 The Greens (BDS), 4:14 Griaule, Marcel, 3:116 Groundnuts, 1:9, 4:13–15 group introduction, 1 : 7 Grunitzky, Nicolas, 4:94 Guanche people, 1:119 Gueï, Robert, 2:170 Guellah, Ismail Omar, 1:221, 4:44 Guinea, 2:107–10 (map) Conakry, capital of, 1 : 169 as French colony, 1:162 geography of, 2:108 history and government of, 2:108, 109 as part of French West Africa, 2:76 people and economy of, 2:109–10 Touré, President of, 4 :98–99 Touré, Ruler of, 4:97–98 Guinea-Bissau, 2:110–12 Cabral, President of, 1:110 and Cape Verde, 1:120–21 Geography and Peoples, 2:110 History, Government and economy of, 2:110–12 as Portuguese colony, 1:166 and Senegal, 4:15 Coast of Guinea, sculpture of, 1:62, 63 Guinea pepper (grains), 2:108 Guinea rice, 1:10 Gulmanceba, 1 :102 gum arabic, 4:66 Gur language, 2:204 Gurage people, 2:49 Gurunsi people, 1:102, 2:97, 98 Gusii people, 2:158 Gwi people, 2:186

H Ha folks, 2:50 habitats. See Ecosystems Habré, Hissène, 1:128

Habshis, 1:204, 205 Habyarimana, Juvénal, 1:107, 3:217-18 Hached, Ferhat, 4:134 Hafsids, 4:122 Haggard, H. Rider, 1:136, 3:24 Haile Selassie I, 2 :33, 34, 2:112, 3:75 Hailu, Kassa, 2:32 hairstyles, 1:89 Haiti, 1:207–8 Hakim, Tawfiq al-, 4:87 Hamina, Mohammed Lakdar, 1:138 Hannibal, 4:123 Harare, 2:112-13 Haratin people, 2:40 harp lutes, 3:112 (illustrated) harps, 3:113 Harratin people, 2:40 Harris, William Wadé, 1:135, 3:84 , 189 Harvest: 3,000 Years (film), 1:138 Hasan, Ali Abu al-, 3:159 Hasan, Muhammad Abdallah, 2:163 Hashmi, Zahur Shah, 1:204 Hassan II, 2:113, 3:93, 95, 105 Hatshepsut, 2:11, 3:173 Hausa language, 2:203, 207 Hausa people, 2:50, 2:113–14 building decorations of, 1:55 literature of, 3:21 married women of, 2:88 medicine under, 2:116–17 of Niger, 3:133, 136 of Nigeria, 3:139, 143, 145 Hausaland, 3:139 Hawkins, William, 1:206 head, Bessie, 2:114 headgear, 1:88, 89 Healers, 3:187–89 Healing and Medicine, 2:114–19 Faith and, 2:163 Horton, Physician, 2:137 and Conceptions of Health and Disease, 2:115 Islamic, 2:116– 17, 163 Medicine and Disease, 2:115–17 Traditional African Therapies, 2:117–19 (Fig.) Health Care, 2:119–22 Fundamentals, 2:119–20 and Diseases, 1:213–17 (Fig. ) as a focus of Christian activity, 1:135 in South Africa, 4:55–56 for sexually transmitted diseases, 1:14 structure of, 2:120–22 (illust.) health centers, 2:121 "Heart of Darkness" (Konrad) , 1:175 Hehe people, 2:50 Henry the Navigator, 4:114 herbal medicine, 2:116, 117 (fig.)

Shepherds and herdsmen, 3:169-70 Bantu, 1:76 division of the flocks, 4:42 passing meadows, 2:159 origins, 2:124 in the Sahara, 2:124 Herero, 1:93, 2:50, 2 :123 Maherero, Chief of, 3:44–45 of Namibia, 3:121, 122, 124 Herodotus, 1:32, 3:197 Hertzog, James, 4:48 Heshoo Beshoo, 3:183 (Fig.) Hieroglyphics, 3:76 High Atlas Mountains, 1:71, 2:2 Higher Education, 2:7, 9 Highland Plateau region (Algeria), 1:17–18 Highlife (dance), 1:190 Highways, 4:107 (map) History Africa, 2:123–36 (fig.) of Algeria, 1:19–23 (fig.) of ancient Egypt, 2:10–12 (fig.) of Angola, 1:27–29 (fig.) archeology and Prehistory, 1:40–53 (map) of Bénin, 1:81–83 of Botswana, 1:92–93 of Burkina Faso, 1:99–102 of Burundi, 1:105–7 (fig.) Cameroon, 1st :115–18 Central African Republic, 1:124, 125 Chad, 1:126, 127 colonial period in, 2:133–34 Congo (Brazzaville), 1:169–72 (Fig.) of the Congo (Kinshasa), 1:173 –76 economical. See Economic History of Equatorial Guinea, 2:24–26 of Eritrea, 2:27, 28 of Ethiopia, 2:30–35 European Influence and Slave Trade, 2:129–31 (illust.) of French Equatorial Africa, 2:74–76 of Gabon, 2:81, 82 of Gambia, 2:85 of Ghana, 2:94–96 of Guinea, 2:108, 109 of Guinea-Bissau, 2:110, 111 influence of Islam in, 2:127–29 of Ivory Coast, 2:166-70 of Johannesburg, 2:172, 173 of Kenya, 2:180-83 of Lesotho, 3:4, 5 of Liberia, 3:8-11 of Libya, 3:13-16 of Madagascar , 3:38-42 of Malawi, 3:46-48

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Index of Mali, 3:52-54 of Mauritania, 3:70-73 of modern Egypt, 2:15-20 of Morocco, 3:91-93 of Mozambique, 3:98-102 of Namibia, 3:121-23 of Niger, 3:133, 134 of Niger River and Delta, 3:136-37 of Nigeria, 3:139-44 of North Africa, 3:153-60 and Oral Tradition, 3:165-66 of Pastoralism, 3: 29–30 of plantations, 3:176–77 Prehistory to Iron Age, 2:123–25 of Reunion, 3:211 Roots of colonialism in, 2:131–33 of Rwanda, 3:216–20 (fig.) of Desert Sahara, 4:2 of São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:7 of Senegal, 4:12–15 of Sierra Leone, 4:21–26 since independence, 2:134–36 (illust.) Society, trade and urban development , 2:125–27 of Somalia, 4:41–44 of South Africa, 4:48–54 of Southern Africa, 4:56–59 (illust.) of Sudan, 4:66–70 of Swaziland, 4:77– 78 Tanzania, 4:82–83 Togo, 4:92–95 Tunisia, 4:121–23 Uganda, 4:128–32 Western Sahara, 4:145, 146 Zambia, 4:164–65 of Zanzibar, 4:168 of Zimbabwe, 4:171–75 The History of the Yorubas (Johnson), 2:174 HIV, 1:14, 215, 4:55, 165 Hodgson, Sir Frederick, 1:70 “Homelands” (South Africa), 1:37 Hominids, 2:142–45 Homo erectus, 2:144–46 homosexuality, 2:89–90 Horn of Africa, 1:164, 2:29, 30, 32, 4:40, 41 horses, 1:32 Horton, James Africanus, 2:137, 3:126 Horus (Egyptian god), 3:118 (illust.) Hospitals, 2:120, 121–22 Houphouët-Boigny, Félix, 2:137, 2:166–69 (illust. ) hours, 1:113 households as family units, 2:57–58 slaves in, 4:13 in small villages, 2:103

240

Houses and dwellings, 2:138–40 in Bénin, 1:82 (illustr.) Islamic laws for, 2:210 for migrant workers, 2:200–1 rural, 2:138 urban, 2:139–40 (illustr.) Hova people, 2:51 human rights, 1:36, 2:140–42 people, early, 2:142–47 (map) ancestors of, 2:142–45 (illus.) archaeological evidence of, 1:48 - 51 Emergence of Modernity, 2:146–47 Hunger and Famine, 2:147–50 (illust.) Hunger Season, 2:69 Hungry Rice, 1:9 Hunting and Gathering, 2:87–88, 102, 2:150– 51 Hut Tax, 4:23 Hutu people, 1:104-7 (illustrated), 2:92, 3:216-20 (illustrated) Hydatid disease, 1:217 Hydroelectric power, 2:21, 22

I Ibadan, 2:151 Ibo people, 2:50 Ibn Battuta, Abu Abdallah Muhammad, 2:133, 2:151, 3:85, 4:90, 113 Ibn Khaldun, 4:125 Ibo people, 2:50 Ibrahim, Abdullah, 3:110 Identity, sense of. See also Ethnic Groups and Identity and Age, 1:5 Diops work on, 1:212 Idiophone, 3:114 Idris I, 3:14, 92, 197 Idris II, 3:92 Ifni, 1:167 Ifriqiya, 4:1 –22 Igbo (Ibo) people, 2:50, 2:152, 3:137 gender roles in, 2:88 masks of, 1:65 scarification under, 1:87 Igbo Ukwu (archaeological site), 1:46 Igboland, 1:2, 3:139-40, 140 Ijaw people, 2:50 Ijo (Ijaw, Kalabari) people, 2:50 Ile-Ife, 1:139 Illegal settlements, 2:140 Diseases. See diseases IMF. See International Monetary Fund Imhotep, 3:196 Imperialism, 1:153. See also Colonialism in Africa

In Darkest Africa (Stanley), 4:64 In the Fog of the Season's End (La Guma), 2:197 Inan, Abu, 3:159 Indentured Labor, 2:198 Independence Movements, 2:152–56. See also Nationalism in Afrikaner Republics, 1:5 in Algeria, 1:20-21, 78-79 in Angola, 1:28-29 in Belgian Congo, 1:174-75 in Botswana, 1:92 in Cape Verde, 1 :120 Chilembwe's activities in, 1:131 Diops influence on, 1:212 early roots of, 2:152–53 in Egypt, 2:19–20 ethnic cooperation/conflict related to, 2:91 in Ghana, 2: 94–95 in Guinea-Bissau, 1:110 and Independence Period, 2:154–56 (illust.) and Amerindian Communities, 2:157 in Kenya, 2:180–83 in Mali, 3:52–54 Mau Mau Roll in, 3:67–69 in Mauritania, 3:71 missionaries, role in, 3:84 in Morocco, 3:92–93, 105 in Mozambique, 3:86, 101–2 in Namibia, 3:122 and neocolonialism, 3:130-31 Nkrumah, Leader of, 3:149 in Senegal, 4:14 in Sierra Leone, 4:23-24 in Sudan, 4:68-69 Tshombe, Leader in, 4:119 and Unions, 4:134 and World War II, 4:159 Independent Intensive Care Unit, 2:176 Native American Communities, 2:157 Indian Ocean, Shoreline, 2:1 Indigenous Government, 2:102–6 Indirect Rule, 1:156, 157, 159 Indo-Arabic Numeral System, 4:160 Industrial and Trade Union (ICU), 2:175-76, 4:49,50, 134 Industrial Revolution, 2:131-32, 4:32 Industry, For specific countries see under Economy fuel used by, 2:22 Labour, Industrial, 2:200 Childhood, 1:128, 129 (illust.) Infectious Diseases, 1:213–17, 2:119 Informal Labour, 2:201 Law of Inheritance related to Islamic Law, 2:165 of Kingship, 2 :190 Rites of Initiation, 1:130, 2:158–59

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Index in Chad, 4:97 group, 1:7 masks in, 3:67 as transition, 1:6–7 Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), 4:53–54, 56, 176 inland fisheries, 2:64 insects as prehistoric Food, 2:144 Tsetse Fly, 2:127 An Instant in the Wind (Brink), 1:97 Instruments, Musical, 3:111–14 (illust.) The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (Equiano), 2:27 Interlacustrine Bantu, 1:75–76 International Organizations, Help From, 2:99, 100 International Congresses of Black Writers and Artists, 1:212 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, 3:219 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 3:80, 129, 204, 4:105 International Theater for Development Festival, 4:89 Internet Access, 2:5 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), 1:148 Iron Processing, 2:125 Irrigation Agriculture, 1:12 and Flood Control, 2:159–61 ( illustrated.) Isara: A Voyage around "Essay" (Soyinka), 4:60 Islam in Africa, 2:162-65 and Algeria, 1:17, 20-21 along the Swahili coast, 1:38 under Bambara, 1 :73 among Fulanis, 2:78 ancestors and rituals of, 1:194 architectural influence of, 1:57–58 brotherhoods in, 4:15 and builders/buildings, 1:55 burial customs of, 1:191 in Cairo, 1: 110, 111 (fig.) during the colonial and post-colonial period, 1:39–40 and prophecy, 1:218 in East Africa, 1:38 in Egypt, 2:16 in Ethiopia, 2:31–32 and family life, 2: 58, 59 feasts, 2:61 burial traditions, 1:192, 193 and gender roles, 2:88–89 in Guinea, 4:97, 98 in the history of Africa, 2:127–29 and human rights, 2:141 influence of, 2:164-65

in Libya, 3:14 and Literature, 3:19 Mahdi, religious leader in, 3:44 Marriage and divorce in, 3:65 Medicine, Islamic, 2:116–17 Muslim calendar, 1:112 Mythology of, 3:116 –17 and Nigeria, 3:139–41 in North Africa, 1:40 Ramadan observances in, 2:61 role of women in, 4:156 in Senegal, 4:12–14 and slave trade, 4:27, 28, 30 –31, 35 in Somalia, 4:46 in Songhai empire, 1:70 spread of, 2:162–64 (illustr.), 3:70, 4:112 in Sudan, 4:67–71 and Sudanese empires, 4:73-74 Sufism, 4:75 Sunni Ali and, 4:76 and Swahili, 4:77 in Tanzania, 4:84, 85 in Tunisia, 4:126 in Uganda, 1:24, 4:129, 133 Umar , leader of, 4:133–34 Uthman, preacher of, 4:137 in West Africa, 1:38 Islamic communities build decorations of, 1:55 rank in, 1:146 Islamic Law, 2:164–65, 192, 209 –10, 214 Islamic movement, 2:100 Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), 1:21, 22 Israel, 4:1 Egypt, war with, 3:125 attack on Entebbe, 4:129 Issa people, 1:220 Istiqlal- Party 3:92 Italian Colonialism, 1:3,164,165, 2:27,33, 4:42 Italian East Africa, 1:164 Ivory Coast, 2:166–71 (map) Abidjan, capital of, 1 :1 archaeological Sites in, 1:47 Asante (Ashanti), 1:69 Bambara, 1:73 as a French colony, 1:162 geography and economy of, 2:166 history and government of, 2:166–70 (Figs. ) Houphouët-Boigny, President of, 2:137 masks of, 1:65, 66 (fig.) as part of French West Africa, 2:76 peoples and cultures of, 2:171 ivory trade, 2:167, 2:171 –72 Iwo Eleru (archaeological site), 1:47

J Jabo, 3:193 Jagua Nana (Ekwensi), 2:20 Jaluo, 2:51 January, 2:36–37 Jawara, Sir David Kairaba, 2:85 Jaya, 2:50 Zeugen Jehovas, 3: 46 Jemmeh, John , 2:85–86 Jenne-jeno (archaeological support), 1:47, 139, 4:4 Schmuck, 1:88, 182 (illust.) Jihads, 1:22, 2:178, 3: 139, 4:4. 13, 134, 137 Johannesburg, 1:120, 2:172–73 (Abb.) John Paul II., Papst, 3:84 Johnson, Martin, 1:136 Johnson, Obadja, 2:174 Johnson, Osa , 1:174; 136 Johnson, Samuel, 2:174 Jola people, 4:36 Jolof people, 2:54 Jonathan, Leabua, 3:4 Judaism in Africa, 2:174 Julius Caesar, 3:214

K Kabarega, 2:175 Kabbah, Ahmed Tajan, 4:24, 25 Kabila, Joseph, 1:176 Kabila, Laurent, 1:175, 4:174 Kabyle-Stamm, 1:84 Kadalie, Clements, 2:175–76 , 4:49, 134 Kafa people, 2:36–37 Kagame, Paul, 3:218, 219 Kagwa, Apollo, 2:176 Kalabari people, 1:192, 2:50 Kalahari-West, 1:68, 219; 91, 196, 219; 2:176–77 (illustrated), 4:47, 163 Kalahari-Volkers, 3:213 Kalenjin-Volkers, 2:43, 50, 181 Kalitera, Aubrey, 3:182 Kamajor-Volkers, 4:25 (illustrated) Volk the Kamba, 2:50 Kambari people, 1:189 Cameroon, 1:163–64 Kanem, 1:90, 4:36 Kanemi, Muhammad al-Amin al-, 2:178 Kano, David, 4:89 KANU. Siehe Kenya African National Union Kanuri people, 2:50, 3:145 Kasagama, 2:175 Kasavubu, Joseph, 1:174, 3:32, 85, 4:119 Kasoma, Kabwe, 4:8

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Index Katanga, 4:119 Katsina, SI, 3:21 Kaunda, Kenneth, 2:178, 4:164, 165 Kaybe People, 4:96 Kayibanda, Gregory, 3:217 Kei, 4:63 Keita, Modibo, 3: 53 Keïta, Seydou, 3:174 Kenya, 2:178–84 (map) archaeological sites in, 1:50 as a British colony, 1:157 economy of, 2:182–84 (illus.) ethnic divisions within, 2: 155; 43 Geography of, 2:179–80 History of, 2:180–83 Kenyatta, President of, 2:184–85 (Fig.) Mau Mau in, 3:67–69 Mboya, Political leader in, 3:74 Moi , President of 3:86 Nairobi, Capital of 3:120 Ngugi wa Thiong'o, Author of 3:132 Paintings of 1:67 People and Cultures of 2:184 Thuku, Political Leader in 4 :89 Kenya African Union (KANU), 2:181, 3:74, 86 Kenya African Union (KAU), 2:181, 185 Kenya Federation of Labor, 3:74 Kenya Times, 3:195 Kenyatta, Jomo, 2:99 , 181, 2:184–85 (illustrated), 3:23, 74, 86, 190 Keôta, Salif, 3:109 (illustrated) Kérékou, Matthew, 1:81, 82 Kgatla people, 2:89 Khafre, 3:197 Khama, Mud, 1:92, 2:185–86 Khama, Tshekedi, 2:185 Khama III, 1:92, 2:185 Khartoum, 2:101, 2:186 Khoi languages, 2:205 Khoi (Kxoe) People, 2:186 Khoikhoi, 1:94 Khoisan languages, 2:205 Khoisan people, 2:45 (illust.), 50, 2:186–87, 4:138 in Botswana, 1:93–94 in Kalahari desert, 2:177 in Lesotho, 3:4 of Namibia, 3:121, 124–25 paintings of, 1:67 in South Africa, 4:56, 57 Khufu, king of Egypt, 3:197 Kibre negest (Glory of the kings), 3:20 Kikuyu, 3:220–21 Kikuyu Central Association (KCA), 2:184, 185, 3:68 Kikuyu, 2:49,

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Kilwa, 1:139 Kimbangu, Simon, 2:187, 3:189 Kimberley Diamond Mine (South Africa), 4:49 (Fig.) Kimbundu People, 2:50 Kimpa Vita, 2:187–88 King Lists, 1:1 113 King Solomon's Mines (Haggard), 1:136, 3:24 Kings and Kingship, 2:188-91 (ill.). See also certain African kings, as slave traders, 1:207 royal feasts, 2:61 Mutapa, 3:114–15 pharaohs, 3:173–74 power and rank, 1:144, 147 as symbols of state, : 104 Kingsley, Mary Henrietta, 2:191, 4:116 Confused, 3:45-46 Kinshasa, 1:175, 2:191-92 Kinship, 2:57, 2:192-94 (illustrated), 3:1142, 63, 4:38 Islamic Law Related, 2:164–65 and Kingship, 2:189, 190 and Xhosa People, 4:161 Kissi People, 2:109 Kitawala Religious Movement, 3:192 Kitchener, Herbert Horatio,; Lord, 2:186, 4:67 Kitigana, John, 1:135 Kolingba, Andrew Dieudonné, 1:124, 125 Conare, Alpha Oumar, 3:54 Congo Highlands (Angola), 1:25 Congo, Kingdom, 1: 132, 135, 170, 175, 2:195 Kimpa Vita, nobles of, 2:187–88 Mvemba Nzinga, ruler of, 3:115 Kongo people, 2:50 Kongo-Warra, War of, 2:75 Konkomba people , 4:93, 96 Kono people, 2:109 Konso people, 1:64, 2:36 Korah (instrument), 3:112–14 (illust.) Kordofan languages, 2:204 Koroma, Johnny Paul, 4th : 24–14.25 Theater of the Dead, 4:87 Theater of the Dead, 3:133 Theater of the Dead, 2:195, 3:25 Theater of the Dead, 2:51, 109 Theater of the Dead, 2:74, 4:23, 1 Kruan-speaking groups, 3:11, 12 Kruger, Paul, 2:196, 4:59 Cubans, 1:55, 64, 183 Kufuor, John, 2:96, 3:204 Kumasi, 1:69, 70, 3:186-8

!Kung people, 1:94, 2:87, 89, 186, 193, 3:124 Kurunmi (Rotimi), 4:88 Kush, 1:46, 2:13–14, 3:75–76 Kuta-Mahongwe , 1:64 Kwahu people, 2:98 Kxoe people. See Khoi people

L La Digue, 4:18 La Guma, Alex, 2:196-97 Labor, 2:197-201 (illustr.) African systems of, 2:197 Agricultural, 1:12, 2:88, 198-200 AIDS and Lack of, 1:14 gender and, 2:88 industrial, informal and domestic, 2:200–1 migration, labor force, 2:197–98 unions and trade associations, 2:166–67, 4:134–35 labor force leader Kadalie , South Africa, 2:175–76 Mboya, Kenya, 3:74 Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 3:111 Lagoons, 2:1 Lagos, 1:141–42, 2:201, 3:140, 142 (Fig. ), 4 :91 Laing, Alexander Gordon, 4:116 Archaeological Evidence from Lakes, 1:50, 51 Salt, 1:17 Lake Tanganyika, 4:83 Lake Victoria, 1:50, 3:148, 4:83, 116 Lakwena (Prophet), 3:190 Lambarene, Gabon, 3:83 (illust.) Lambert Charter, 3:39 Lamizana, Sangoulé, 1:99, 100 Land. See also geography ownership of, 1:13, 2:202–3 reform, land, 1:13, 2:30 settlement and use of, 2:71–73, 3:170–71 Lander, Richard, 4:116 language (s), 2:203-8 (illustrated). See also Ethnic Groups and Identity; Specific Languages Afrikaans, 3:23 Afroasiatic, 2:203–4 Bantu, 1:74, 76 Classification, 2:203–5 Comoros, 1:168 Coptic Christians, 1:179 Creole, 1:185, 2:205 in Greater Johannesburg, 2:172 and Historical Linguistics, 1:42

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Index of Individual Ethnic Groups, 2:47–54 Khoisan, 2:205 Niger-Congo, 2:204 Nilo-Saharan, 2:204–5 Pidgin, 2:205 shift, language, 2:207 of slaves, 1:207 and Tribal classification, 4:117 writing systems, 4:159–60 Lassa fever, 1:214–15 Late Stone Age, 1:42, 43, 45, 47, 50, 51 Lavigerie, Charles, 3:82 Lawrence of Arabia (fig.), 3 :94 Laws and Legal Systems, 2:208–14 (Fig.) in Colonial Era, 2:210–13 Common Law, 2:209, 211, 213–14 Islamic, 2:164–65 , 209–10, 214 Loi- Cadre, 2:77 in Postcolonial Times, 2:213-14 Traditions, Law, 2:208-10 Western Law, 2:210, 213-14 Layla (film), 1:138 Leakey Family, 1:48, 3: 1–2 (illustrated) Leakey, Louis B., 1:52 (illustrated), 2:144, 3:1–2 (illustrated) Leakey, Mary, 1:52 (Fig.), 2:143, 3:2 Leakey, Meave, 3:2 Lebanese Communities, 3:2 Legal Systems. See laws and legal systems Legumes, 1:10 Leishmaniasis, 1:213 Lekhanya, Justin, 3:4 Lemba people, 2:174 Lenshina, Alice, 3:3, 3:190 lentils, 3:178 Leo Africanus, 3:3 Leo X, Pope, 3:3 Leopold II, 1:155,171, 4:64 Léopoldville, 2:192 Leptiminus (archaeological site), 1:46 Lesotho, 3:4–7 (illustr.) as a constitutional monarchy , 2:191 hereditary rank in, 1:147 Moshoeshoe I, father of, 3:96 Letsie III, 3:4, 5 Liberal Party of South Africa, 3:168 Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), 1:109 Liberia , 3:7–12 (map) economy of, 3:7–8 freed slaves and, 1:210 geography of, 3:7 history and government of, 3:8–11 (illust.) peoples and cultures of, 3 : 11-12 and Sierra Leone, 4:24

Tubman, President of, 4:120 Libreville, 2:74 Libya, 3:12–17 (map) Economy of, 3:16–17 History of, 3:13–16 (illust.) as Italian Colony, 1:165 Country and people of, 3:13 oil production in, 1:225 Gaddafi, leaders of, 3:197–98 urban population in, 1:142 life and times of Michael K (Coetzee), 1:150 life expectancy, 2:119 Limann, Hilla, 2:96, 3:203 linguistics, historical, 1:42 The Lion and the Jewel (Soyinka), 4:59 Liquors, 2:68 Lissouba, Pascal, 1:171 Literacy, 2:204, 3:17– 18 literature, 3:18–28 Achebe, writer, 1:2 (illusion) in African languages, 3:20–22 (illusion) Afrikaans, 3:23 in Arabic, 3:18–19 Asma'u, poetess, 1 :71 Best Sellers in Nigeria, 3:194 Beti, Novelist, 1:85–86 Brink, Novelist, 1:97 Camara Laye, Author, 1:113–14 Folk Books, 3:194 Coetzee, Novelist, 1:150 Crows of the Arabs , poet, 1:204 Diop, writer, 1:212 during early European colonization, 2:153 Ekwensi, writer, 2:20 in English, 3:22–24 Equiano, abolitionist writer, 2:27 in French, 3: 24–26 Fugard, playwright, 2:78 Gordimer, writer, 2:101 Head, writer, 2:114 Kourouma, novelist, 2:195 La Guma, writer, 2:196–97 Mahfouz, writer, 3:45 mythology, 3:116-19 (illust.) Ngugi, Author, 3:132 Nwapa, Writer, 3:163 and Oral Tradition, 3:165-66 Paton, Writer, 3:168 Plaatje, Writer, 3:175-76 Publishing, 3:193–95 (illust.) Schreiner, writers, 4:9 Sembène, author, 4:11 Shaaban, poets and writers, 4:19 Soyinka, writers, 4:59–60 Tutuola, writers, 4:127 women draftsmen of 3:26–27 (illustrated) cattle grazing, 3:28–30 (illustrated)

Livingstone, David, 1:135, 3:30–31, 3:47, 174, 4:64, 115 (illustriert), 116 Smoke, Smoke, 3:20 Loaisis, 1:214 Lobelias, 2:2 Lobelia, 115; 3:31, 3:119 Framework Law, 2:77 Loma people, 2:109 Lome Agreement, 4:25 Lome, Togo, 4:95 (illust.) Lopes, Henry, 3:26 Louisiana State University, 1 : 109. 204 The Opening, Toussaint, 1:207–8 Lozi (Rotse) people, 2:51, 3:200, 4:162 Lualaba River, 1:178 Luanda (Angola), 1:25, 27–29 ( Abb. ) Priestervolk, 2:51 Lucy (menschliche Vorfahrin), 2:30, 143 Lüderitz, Adolf, 3:121 Lugard, Frederick John Dealtry, 2:175, 3:31–32, 3:141, 4:129 Priestervolk, 1:191, 194 Luhya (Luhia) Volk, 2:51 Lumpa Kirche, 3:3 Lumumba, Patrice Emery, 1:174, 3:32, 3:85 Lunda (Aluund) Volk, 2:51, 4 :1 Luo (Jaluo)-Leute, 1:67, 2:51, 181, 184, 3:33 Lusaka, 3:33–34 (illus.) Lutes, 3:113 Lutuli, Albert, 3:34–35 Luvale-Leute , :66 Lyres, 3:113

M Maa language, 3:35 Maasai language, 2:207 Maasai (Maasai), 2:41 (illust.), 51, 184, 3:35, 4:100 ages onset, 1:8 during British colonization , : 180 rites of adulthood at, 2:158 hairstyles at, 1:89 Macaulay, Herbert Samuel Heelas, 1:72–73, 3:35–36 Machar, Riek, 4:69 Machel, Samora Moses, 3:89 ; 36, 3:101 MacPherson, Fergus, 3:3 Madagascar, 3:36–43 (map) Antananarivo, capital of, 1:36 economy of, 3:41 (fig.), 42 as French colony, 1:163 geography from 3:36–37 History and Government from 3:38–42 Maritime Climate from 1:148

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Index Paintings of, 1:67 Peoples and cultures of, 3:42, 43 Ranavalona,Queen of, 3:203 Sculpture of, 1:64 Ganda, 2:49 Magazines, 3:194, 195 Maghreb (Maghrib ), 1:37, 3:43–44, 3:152 magicians, 3:187–89 Mahafaly people, 1:64, 67, 193 (illustrated) Mahdi, al-, 2:101, 3:44, 4 : 67, 193; 70 Mahe, 4:18 Maherero, Samuel, 3:44-45, 4:150 Mahfouz, Naguib, 3:19, 3:45 Postal Service, 4:109 Low Hand on Cameroon (Beti), 1:95-96 Mainassara, Ibrahim, 3:134 The Master of the Word (Camara Laye), 1:114 Mais, 1:10, 12 (illust.) Magic Magic, 3:45–46, 3:190 Majid, Sayyid, 1:190 Makeba, Miriam, 3:111 Makhwa, 3:162 Makonde, 1:66, 3:163 Makonnen, Ras Tafari, 2:33 Makua, 2:51 Malabo, Guinea, 2:25 (Fig. ) Malagasy language, 3:38 Malagasy , 2:51, 3:38–43, 39 Malagasy Revolt, 3:40 Malan, Daniel, 4:50 Malanje Plateau (Angola), 1:25 Malaria, 1:214 Malawi, 3:46–50 (map) Banda , President of, 1:73–74 Foundation of, 1:159 Geography of, 3:46 History and Government of, 3:46–50 (illust.) People and Culture of, 3 :50 Malawi Congress Party (MCP), 1:73, 74 “Male Mothers”, 2:194 Mali, 3:51–56 (map) archaeological sites in, 1:47, 48, 4:4 Bambara, 1:73 Dogon architecture, 2:194; 1:55 economy of, 3:54 as a French colony, 1:162 geography of, 3:51–52 history and government of, 3:52–54 irrigation in, 2:159 Mansa Musa, emperor of, 3:58– 52.59 (Fig.) People and culture by, 3:55–56 Sculpture by, 1:63

244

Sudanic Empires, 4:73 Sundajata, founder of, 4:75–76 Sunni Ali and, 4:76 Timbuktu, metropolis in, 4:90 Malinké people, 1:169, 2:109 Victory, Jean, 3:26 Mother benz, 2:70 Mamba People, 3:56 Mother Year, 3:56-57, 4:6 Mamluks, 2:16-18 Mammals, 4:146-48 Man Mountains, 2:166 Mana Pools, 4:162 Mancala , 4:63 Mandabi (Sembene), 4:11 Mandela, Nelson, 1:196, 2:105 (illust.), 3:22, 3:57–58, 4:48, 52–54, 127 Mande language , 2:204 Mandingo, 2:51, 171, 3:9, 11, 12, 55 Mandingo language, 3:19 Mandinka, 2:86, 110 Mandinka, 1:68 Mangbetu, 2:5 Mangroves, 2:1 Manjaco people, 2:110 Manon people, 2:109 Mansa Musa, 3:52, 3:58–59 (illust.), 4:73, 89 Mansur, Mulai al-, 3:60 Maps and map making, 3 :60–61 State of Mapungabwe, 1:52 City of Mapungabwe, 1:76 Maputo, Mozambique, 4:110 (Fig.) Maranke, John, 3:61 Maravi people, 2:48 Marburg virus, 1:215 Margai, Albert, 4:24 Margai, Milton, 4:24 Marine life, 4:148 Marine climate, 1:148 Markets, 1:223 (illustrated), 3:61–62 in Burma 100 (illustrated) in Lusaka, 3:34 ( illustr.) Marital systems, 1:130, 3:63–65 (illustr.), 4:176–77 in Angola, 1:30 diversity, 2:57 control of elders, 1:6 female marriages, 2:90 in Ghana , 2:98 ghost marriages, 3:65 homosexual, 2:89–90 and royalty, 2:194 rituals associated therewith, 2:158 Masai Mara Game Reserve, 2:158, 2:182 (Fig. ), 4:149 (Fig.) Massakela, Hugh, 3:111 Masinissa, 2:188, 3:156

Masks and Masquerades, 1:65–66 (illustrated), 181, 1:188, 2:61,3:50, 3:65–67 (illustrated) Massemba Debate, Alphonse, 1:170 Masters of the Congo Jungle (Movie), 1:136 Matabeleland, 3:31 Matabele People, 2:52 Matabeleal Descent, 2:193 Mats, Basketry, 1:181 Mau Mau, 1:157, 2:99, 181, 185, 3:6 –69, 3:190 Mauritania, 3:69–73 (map) as a French colony, 1:162 geography and economy of, 3:69, 70 history and government of, 3:70–73 (fig.) as part of French West Africa, 2:76 People and culture of, 3:73 Senegal River Development Organization in, 2:161 Mauritius, 1:157, 158, 3:73–74 Mayotte, 1:163, 167, 168 Mba, Leon, 167 ; 2:75, 82 The people of the country, 1:93 The people of the country, 3:111 The people of the country, 1:191–92 Mbeki, Thabo, 4:54 The instrument, 3:114, 4:21 The music of the country, 3:114, 4:2 135 (illustrated), 3:74 Mbukushu people, 1:93 Mbundu (Ovimbundu) people, 1:30, 66, 2:51 Mbuti people, 2:87, 3:196 measles, 1:216 meat, 2:6–67 Mecca, 2:162 medicine. See Healing and Medicine Mediterranean climate of, 2:2 Coast of, 2:1 Piracy in, 1:19 Media, 1:218 Megacities, 1:142 Melilla, 1:167 Mel-speaking groups, 3:9, 11, 12 Membranophones , 3:114 Memphis, Egypt, 1:110 Men's settings in reference, 3:27–28 respect for old age in, 1:6 sacred positions, 1:102 Mende people, 1:65, 2:51, 4:26 Mendes, Alphonsus, 4:77 Conqueror Haile Mariam, 2:30,34,35, 3:75 Menilek II, 1:3, 2:33,112, 3:20, 3:75 Meningitis, 1:75; 216

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Index Menkaure, king of Egypt, 3:197 Merina (Hova) people, 1:36, 2:51, 3:38–39, 42, 200 Meroë, 3:75–76 metals, industrial, 3:78 metal engineering, 2 :125 Mezonad (instrument), 3:113 Mfecane, 4:56–59 (illust.) Mhudi (Plaatje), 3:24, 176 Micombero, Michel, 1:105, 106 Middle Atlas Mountains, 1:71 Middle East, Jews from, 2:174 Middle Kingdom (Egypt), 2:11 Middle Passage, 4:29 Middle Stone Age, 1:42, 44–47, 49–50 migrant workers, 2:198 migration, 1:203 from Bantu, 1:74 –76 on cities, 1:13 of early man, 2:146–47 Great Trek, 2:196 labor, 2:197–98 prehistoric, 2:124–25 refugees, 3:204–6 (fig .) from the Sahara, 2:124 Mijikenda, 2:184 Millet, 1:9 Mina, 4:94, 96 Minerals and Mining, 3:76–80 (map) Big Hole Mine (Kimberley), 4:49 (fig.) in the Colonial Era, 1:225 Mining, 3:78–80 (Fig.) Resources, Minerals, 3:76–78 and Trade, 4:105–6 Misery Index, 1:199 Missions and Missionaries, 3:81–84 (Fig. ) after 1800, 3:82–84 Braide, Niger Delta, 1:96 Colenso, Briton, 1:151 Crowther, Anglican, 1:186 as disruptors, 1:152–53 European Christian, 1:132–34 as literacy promoters, 2 :204 Livingstone, Medicine, 3:30–31 in Malawi, 3:47 music, influence on, 3:110 Quaque, Ghana, 3:198 in South Africa, 4:58 u theatre, 4:87 White Fathers, 3:82 Writing systems, distribution, 4:160 cloud forests, 2:71 MKamba people, 2:50 Mkapa, Ben, 4:83 Mlapa III, 4:92 M'membe, Fred, 3:195 (fig.) Mobutu, Joseph Désiré, 1:175

Mobutu Sese Seko, 3:85, 3:218, 4:119, 174 Mogadishu, 2:91 (illust.), 3:85–86, 4:43 Mohéli, 1:167 Moi, Daniel arap, 2:99, 181–83, 3:86 Mokhehle, Ntsu, 3:5 Mombasa, 1:139, 165 (figs.) Momoh, Joseph, 4:24 Monasteries, 1:179 Mondlane, Eduardo Chivambo, 3:36, 3:86, 3:101 money and banking, 3:87–90 banks and banking, 3:89–90 barter system vs., 4:104 coins of ancient Aksum, 1:16 money, 3:87–89 (illust.) Sudanese, 4th :73 Monkeys, 3:151 Monnew (Kourouma), 2:195, 3:25 Monogamy, 2:57 Monophysite Christianity, 1:16, 24, 179 Montane Zone, 2:2, 3 Monteiro, António Mascarenhas, 1:121 Months, 1:112–13 Mooré language, 3:96 Moors, 3:73 Elk-men, 2:51 Moran (warriors), 1:8 Morocco, 3:90–95 (map) Bidonvilles in, 1:139 Dances of , 1:188 economy of, 3:93–94 fortress in, 1:57 (fig.) as a French colony, 1:160, 161 Hassan II, king of, 2:113 history and politics of, 3:91– 94 (Fig.) Mansur, ruler of, 3:60 Muhammad V, king of, 3:150 People and culture of, 3:95 Spanish colonialism in, 1:166, 167 Urban population in, 1:142 and Western Sahara, 4: 145, 146 Moshoeshoe I, 3:4, 5 (Figs.), 3:96, 4:58 Moshoeshoe II, 3:4, 5 Mosisili, Pakalitha, 3:5 Mosques, 1:57–58 (Figs. ), 111 (illustrated), 2:164 (illustrated) Kingdom of Mossi, 4:102 Mossi (Moose), 1:99, 102, 189 (illustrated), 2:51, 3:96–97 Mount Kenya, 2:2 , 179 Mount Kilimanjaro, 4:83, 84 (illust.) Mount Tahat, 1:18 mountain climate affected, 1:148

Ecosystems of, 2:2, 3 movies. See Mozambican Cinema, 3:97–103 (map), 4:53 Economy of, 3:102–3 Geography of, 3:98 History and Government of, 3:98–102 Machel, President of, 3:36 Masks of , 1:66 Mondlane, anti-colonial leader, 3:86 Mutapa, dynasty of, 3:114–15 people and culture of, 3:103 as Portuguese colony, 1:166 Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO), 2:156 (Fig. ), 3:36, 86, 100 (fig.), 101 Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO), 3:102 Mswati III, 4:77, 78 Mubarak, Hosni, 2:20, 3:104 Muchinga Mountains, 4: 102 163 Mudimbe, Valentin, 3:26 Mugabe, Robert, 3:104-5, 4:173-75 Muhammad (Prophet), 3:19, 157 Muhammad Ali, 1:17, 2:18, 4:66-67 Muhammad al-Maghili, 4:113 Muhammad V, 3:92,93, 3:150 Muhammad VI, 3:93 Muiguithania (Kenyan newspaper), 3:194 Mukhtar, Umar al-, 4:75 Muluzi, Bakili, 3: 48 mummies, 1:45 Mundombe, Zacharias, 4:142 (illust.) Munshi, 2:53 Muqaddama (Ibn Khaldun), 4:125 Mursal, Maryam, 4:46 Muscat, 4:5 Museveni, Joel, 3:1 , 3:164, 4:131, 131 (illus.), 132 music, 3:129 musical instruments, 3:111–14 (illus.) characteristics of, 3:111, 113 types of, 3:113–14 music and Canto, 3:106–11 (illustrated) characteristics of, 3:106 influences from outside Africa, 1:211 regional, 3:107–11 South Africa, 4:48 Muslim Brotherhood, 3:125, 4:48 69 Muslim festivals, 2:61 Muslims. See Islam Mussafar, Mohamed Siddiq, 1:204 Mutapa, 3:114-15, 4:171 King II, 3:115, 3:164, Table, 3:182

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Table of contents Mwene Mutapa. See Mutapa Mwinyi, Ali Hassan, 4:83 My Life and the ICU (Kadalie), 2:176 My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (Tutuola), 4:127 Mythology, 3:116–19 (illustrated), 3:207 , 208 Mzilikazi, 3:31, 3:119, 3:129, 4:58

N Nagada, 2:13 Nago people, 2:54 Nahda, 4:126 Nairobi, 1:141 (illustr.), 3:120 Nama people, 2:186, 4:150–51 Namib desert, 1:196 , : 2 Namibia, 3:120–25 (map) (fig.) Economy of, 3:123–24 Geography of, 3:120–21 History and government of, 3:121–23 Maherero, Herero chief, 3 :121 – 23. 44-45 Nujoma, President of, 3:161-62 (illust.) Peoples and cultures of, 3:124-25 Nana Benz, 4:94 Nandi people, 2:43, 88, 184 people the Nankani, 2:97 Napoleon Bonaparte, 3:211 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 2:19, 3:125, 3:200, 4:1 photography, 1:158 National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, 1:73 1:73, 3:36 National Council of Nigerian Citizens, 3:143 National Debts, 1:199, 200, 226 National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), 1:28 Nationalism, 3:126–29 (fig. ) and “Homelands Concept, 2:46 Origins of, 2:152 National Koteba, 4:87 National Liberation Front (FLN), Algeria, 1:21, 78–79, 2:60 National Liberation Movement (NLM), Ghana, 1: 108, 2:94 National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), 1:28, 29, 109, 2:155, 4:142 (image), 143 National Unionist Party (NUP), Sudan, 4:68, 69 Nationalist Party, 4:48 Natural Gas, 1:18, 2:21 Ndadaye, Melchior, 1:107, 3:218

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Volk der Ndau, 1:189 Volk der Ndebele (Matabele), 2:47, 52, 3:31, 3:129, 3:204 Gebäudedekorationen von, 1:55–56 Mzilikazi, Gründer von, 3:119 Gemälde von: 67 of Zimbabwe, 4:172, 175 Ndereba, Catherine, 4:62 (illust.) Ndowe people, 2:26 Negritude, 3:130 Blyden, promoter of, 1:86 Senghor, promoter of, 4:18 Neocolonialism, 3 :130–31 Neo-Destour Party, 1:95, 4:123 Nervous Conditions (Dangarembga), 3:24 Neto, Augustine, 3:131 Never Again (Nwapa), 3:163 New Kingdom (Ägypten), 2:24 11, 13 New Yam Ceremonies, 2:61 Zeitungen, 3:194, 195 Ngazidja, 1:167 Ngazija people, 2:48 Ngombo, cult of, 1:218 Ngouabi, Marien, 1:171 Nguema, Francisco Macías, 2 : 25, 141 Nguni von Thiong'o, 3:23, 24, 3:132, 4:89 Nguni-Völker, 4:39 Dingiswayo, Häuptling von, 1:211 von Mosambik, 3:103 Niam-Niam-Völker, 2: 4 Nicholas V, Pope, 3:81 Niger, 3:132–35 (Karte) archäologische Stätten in, 1:47 dekorative Kunst von, 1:68 als französische Kolonie, 1:162 Geographie und Wirtschaft von, 3:132 Geschichte und Regierung von, 3:133, 134 als Teil von Französisch-Westafrika, 2:76 Menschen und Kulturen von, 3:135 Sahel-Region von, 4:4 Niger-Kongo-Sprachen, 2:204 Nigerdelta-Mission, 1:186 Niger und Delta, 2:159, 3:51, 3:135–37 (Abb.) Nigeria, 3:137–46 (Karte) Abubakar, Premierminister von, 4:81 archäologische Stätten in, 1:46–48 Azikiwe, Präsident von, 1:72–73 Benin City, 1:48 als britische Kolonie, 1:156 Christentum in, 1:96 dekorative Kunst von, 1:68 Wirtschaft von, 3:144–45 Geographie von, 3:137–38 Geschichte und Regierung von, 3:139–44 (illustriert)

Ibadan (city), 2:151 Igbo Ukwu, archeological site in, 1:46 Lagos, former capital of, 2:201 Macaulay, political leader in, 3:35–36 masks of, 1:65 peoples and cultures of, 3 :145, 146 River Basin Development Authorities in, 2:161 Sculpture of, 1:63–64 Smuggling, 1:80 Soyinka, Writer, 4:59–60 Sunni Ali and, 4:76 Tinubu, Trader, 4 :91 Nigerian Federation, 4:81 Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), 1:73, 3:36 Nile River and Delta, 3:147–49 (map), 4:68 (illust.) and old Egypt, 2:10 flooding out , 2:159 Search for source of, 1:103, 4:116 Nilo-Saharan languages, 2:204–5 Nimeiri, Ja'far, 4:69 Nkomo, Joshua, 4:172 Nkrumah, Kwame, 1:108 –9, 2:94, 3:149, 3:167 Nok, 1:63 Nongqawuse, 1:195, 3:150 Non-Infectious Diseases, 1:217 North Africa. See also certain countries AIDS in, 1:14 Arab influence on, 1:37 Archeology and Prehistory of, 1:43–46 (Fig.) Art of, 1:60 Atlas Mountains, 1:71 Bidonvilles in, 1:139 British Colonies in, 1:159–60 Carthage, antiquity, 1:122 Christianity in, 1:132 cinema in, 1:138 cities and urbanization in, 1:142–43 climate of, 1:149 countries included in, 1:43 dances in, 1:188 decorative arts in, 1:68–69 energy resources in, 2:21 ethnic groups and identity in, 2:39–40 European settlements in, 2:55 staple foods in, 2:66–67 French colonialism in, 1:160–61 geography and population of, 3:150–52 (fig.)

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Index history and cultures of, 3:153–60 (map) irrigation in, 1:12 Islam in, 1:40 literature in, 3:25 Maghreb, 3:43–44 music of, 3:107 permanent cultivation in, : 12 Phoenicians in, 1:19 folk culture of, 3:184 pre-colonial in, 1:224 rock art in, 1:67, 3:213–14 Sahara Desert, 4:1 slave trade in, 4:27–29 in WWII, 4:157–59 (map) (fig.) Northern Nigeria, 1:78 Northern People's Congress (NPC), Nigeria, 1:78, 3:143 Northern Rhodesia, 4:164 as a British colony, 1:158, 159 Central African Federation , 1:122–23 Northern Rhodesia African Congress, 3:33 Nozolini, Caetano Jose, 1:180 Ntaryamira, Cyprian, 1:107, 3:2 :199 (illust.) Nuba People, 2:52 Nubia, 2:13 –14, 3:75, 3:160–61 Arabic influence on, 1:38 archeology in, 1:46 Christianity in, 1:132 and the Nile, 3:148 Nubian language, 3:160 Nubians, 2:40, 52 Nuer people, 1:67, 2:43, 4:69 Nujoma, Samuel Shafiishuna, 3:122, 3:161–62 (illustrated); Number systems, 3:162-63, 3:163 Numidia, 3:214 Nupe people, 2:42 Nwapa, Flora, 3:23,26, 3:163 Nyamwezi people, 2:52 Lake (Nyasa) people, 2:52 Nyari Valley, 1:172 Nyasa people, 2:52 Nyasaland, 1:73–74, 3:46, 48 as a British colony, 1:158, 159 Central African Federation, 1:122–23 Nyatsimba, 3 :114 Nyerere, Julius Campaign, 3:23, 3:163–64, 4:83,84, 130 Black People, 2:52 True People, 1:194 Beauty, 1:1

O oases, 4:2 OAU. See Organization of African Unity Obasanjo, Olesegun, 3:144 Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, Teodoro, 2:25, 26 obituaries, 1:192 Obote, Milton, 1:24, 3:105, 115, 3:164, 4:130– 31 Occupations of early European settlers, 2:55–56 of individual ethnic groups, 2:47–54 of women, 2:88 ocean currents, climate influenced by, 1:148 Octavian, 1:147–48 Odinga, Oginga, 2:181 Ogooué River, 2:80 Ogotemmeli, 3:116 Ogunism, 1:96 Oil, 1:225 in Algeria, 1:18–19 in Cabinda, 1:109 in Congo, 1:171 in Nigeria, 3:144 from land pumping, 2:23 (Fig.) Ojukwu, Odemegwu, 3:143 Okavango Swamp, 1:25 Okeke, Uche, 1:64 Old Kingdom (Egypt), 2:10–12 Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, 1:52, 3 :2 Olives, 1:10 Oltome Culture, 1:50 Olympio, Sylvanus Epiphanio, 3:165, 4:94 Oman, 4:5, 168, 169 Onchocerciasis, 1:214 Oracle, 1:219 Oral Tradition, 3: 106, 3:165–66 in Music, 3:106 in Mythology, 3:17 in Prehistoric African Studies, 1:42 Orange Free State, 1:5 Oranges, 1:10 Organization of African Unity (OAU), 2:99, 100, 3:167, 4:135 in Addis Ababa, 1:3 and Afro-Arab relations, 1:39 Dispute Settlement Commission of, 4:143 and human rights, 2:141 Nyerere, founder of, 3:164 and status of refugees, 3:206 Tsiranana, founder of, 3:41 Tubman's influence on, 3:10, 4:120

Osborn, Ferrel Loki, 4:148 Osei Tutu, 3:168 Ottoman Empire, 1:19, 159 and Abolition of the Slave Trade, 4:32, 33 in Algeria, 1:19–20 in Egypt, 2:17, 18 in Khartoum , 2:186 Sudan in, 4:66–67 in Tunisia, 4:122, 123 Ouagadougou, 1:98 Ouattera, Allassane, 2:169, 170 Oubangui-Chari, 1:124, 2:75 Oubangui River, 1 : 123, 124 Ouedraogo, Gerard, 1:100 Ouedraogo, Jean-Baptiste, 1:101 Ousmane, Mahamane, 3:124; 134 Osman Sembene, 1:137 (illustrated), 138, 3:25 Ovamboland People's Organization, 3:161 Ovimbundu people, 1:30, 2:5

P Padroado, 3:81 Pahouin people, 2:49 painting, 1:67 body paint, 1:87 rock art, 1:19, 47, 67, 3:212–14 Paleoanthropology Great Rift Valley, 2:30 people, early, 3:142-47 (map) Leakey family, 3:1-2 (fig.) Lucy (human ancestor), 2:30 paleoarchaeology, 1:49 paleontology, 1:42 The palm wine drinker and his dead palm Wine Tapster in the Dead's Town (Tutuola), 3:23, 4:127 Pan-African Congress (PAC), 4:52 Pan-African Student Conference, 1:212 Pan-Africanism, 1:221, 4:98 Blyden, Pioneer of, 1:86 Du Bois, Father of, 1:221 Garvey, leader of, 2:87 Parasitic diseases, 1:213-14 Park, Mungo, 3:137, 4:115-17 Partido Democratico de Guinea Ecuatorial (PDGE), 2:25, 26 Pasha, Nahas, 2:19 Pastoralism, 1:75, 76, 2:123, 124 history of, 3:29-30 types of, 3:28, 29

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Index Patassé, Ange-Félix, 1:125 Paton, Alan, 3:24, 3:168 Patrilineal descent, 2:192–94 Patronage, 1:144 Patronage parties (political), 2:154–55 Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba ( Beti), 1:95 Pawnship, 4:35 Peacekeeping, 3:86, 4:43, 135–36, 143 Peanuts, 2:68 Peasantry and Country Settlement, 3:168–71 (illust.) Land Settlement and Use, 3 :170-71 Farmers and Shepherds, 3:169-70 Pende people, 1:66 Pentecostal Charismatic Churches, 3:191 The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Criticically Examined (Colenso), 1:151 People. See Ethnic groups and peoples People's Experimental Theater, 4:88 People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), Eritrea, 2:27 People's Republic of Angola, 1:28 Pereira, Aristides Maria, 1:120, 3:172 Periodicals, 3 :194, 195 Pests and pest control, 3:172–73 Peters, Lenrie, 3:23 Petroglyphs, 3:213 Petroleum, 1:27, 2:21, 22, 3:77 (map). See also Oil Peul people, 2:49, 78 Pharaohs, 1:147, 2:14, 3:173-74 Pharmaceuticals, 2:116 Philip, apostle, 3:81 Phoenicians, 1:19, 122 Photography, 3:174 –75 pidgin languages, 2:203, 205 pigs, 1:34 pineapples, 1:10 pirates, 1:19 plaatje, sol, 3:24, 3:175–76 plantains, 1:9, 75 plantation systems, 2: 129, 3:176–77 Plant medicine, 2:116, 117 (illustrated) varieties and uses of, 3:177–80 (illustrated) poetry, 4:46 Pokomo people, 2:184 Pokot people, 2:43 Polisario (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Río de Oro), 4:145, 146 Political Instability, 1:4, 2:100 Political Parties, 2:154–55 Law on Political Parties, 4:83 Political Systems. See Government and Political Systems

248

Politics and African archaeology, 1:41 of burial rituals and practices, 1:194–95 colonial times, 2:134 and energy production/distribution, 2:23 and ethnic divisions, 2:45–46, 135 as a factor in slavery, 4 :36–37 global, 2:99–100 in postcolonial period, 2:134, 135 role of woman in, 4:155–56 tribal concept used in, 2:44 polygamy, 1:30, 2:174, 3:63 , 65 Polygyny, 2:57, 190, 4:176 Polytheism, 2:165 Popular culture, 3:180–84 (illust.) Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 1:28–29, 109, 2 :155 population, 3:184–86 and deforestation, 2:72–73 and food habits and growth, 2:70 food shortages and growth, 1:13 Poro societies, 2:158, 4:10 Portuguese colonialism, 1:165– 66 (illust.) in Angola, 1:27–28 in Cabinda, 1:109 in Cape Verde as administrator, 1:120 in the Congo region, 1:169 in Guinea-Bissau, 2:110, 111 in Congo, 2:195 languages during, 2:207 right in, 2:212–13 in Mozambique, 3:97–101, 99–101 in Mutapa, 3:115 political repression during, 2:155 in São Tomé and Príncipe, 4:7 and “Scramble ' for Africa, 1:153 in West Africa, 4:144 Portuguese Creoles, 1:185 Portuguese exploration, 4:114–15 from Mauritania, 3:70 from Nigeria, 3:140 from Zimbabwe, 4:171 Portuguese Guinea, 1 :166 Portuguese trade, 3:115 possessions, spirit, 3:210, 4:60–61 Postcolonial period, 1:4 Arabs in Africa during, 1:39–40 in Bénin, 1:81–82 economies during, 1: 225–26, 2:135–36 formation during, 2:7–9 in Gabon, 2:82 government during, 2:106–7 in Guinea, 2:108, 109

land ownership in, 2:202–3 law in, 2:213–14 mining during, 3:80 politics in, 2:134, 135 trade during, 4:105–6 transport in, 4:107, 108 potatoes, 1 : 9 pottery, 1:182–83 Urban poverty, 1:142 and disease, 1:213, 214 Praslin, 4:18 Pre-colonial period in Bénin, 1:81 in Burkina Faso, 1:99 in Cameroon, 1:116 cities in, 1:139 currency during, 3:88–89 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1:174 economic activity during, 1:222–25 forest management in, 2:72–73 in Niger, 3:133 in Nigeria, 3:139 –40 in Rwanda, 3:217 in Senegal, 4:12–13 trade during, 4:100–4 predictive prophecy, 1:218 prehistory of Africa. See Archeology and prehistory Prempeh, Agyeman, 3:186–87 Présence africaine, 1:212 Presence of food, 2:67–68 Prester John, 2:32 Príncipe, 4:7–8 Property, Elders' control of, 1: 6. See also land ownership, prophetic movements, 3:187–92 (illustrated) Lenshina, Lumpa Church, 3:3 prophets and prophetic churches, 3:189–92 roots of, 3:187–89 Prophets Braide, Niger Delta, 1 : 96 Nongqawuse, 3:150 Shembe, Zulu, 4:20 Prostitution, 2:88, 89 Protectorates, 1:156, 158, 160 Protestant Missionaries, 1:133–36 (illust.) Protestantism, 1:210 Proto-War , 4:140–41 Proverbs and Riddles, 3:192–93 Ptolemy, 1:147, 2:11, 3:156 Publishing, 3:193–95 (illust.) Punic Wars, 1:19, 122 Puntland, 4 : 43, 44 pygmies, 2:52, 3:196, 3:217

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Index Pyramid Age, 2:11 Pyramiden, 1:53–54, 2:12, 3:196–97

Q Qaddafi, Muammar al-, 3:13, 15–16, 3:197–98, 4:44 Quaque, Philip, 3:198 Queen of Sheba, 3:20 Queens and Queen Mothers, 3:198–200 (Figs .). See also Specific Queens A Question of Power (Head), 2:114 Qwi Languages, 2:2

R race. See Ethnic Groups and Identity Racial Issues and African Archaeology, 1:41 Apartheid. See Apartheid and Central African Federation, 1:122–23 Radama I, 3:38, 3:200, 3:203 Radama II, 3:39, 203 Radio and TV, 3:182, 3:201–2 (fig. ) Raffia Art, 1:183 Rahab (Instrument), 3:113 Rai Music, 3:107 Railways, 4:107 (Map), 110–11 Rainforests, 1:54, 149 (Fig.), 150 Rainlaiarivony, 3 :39 Rakoto, 3:203 Ramadan, 2:61 Ramaema, Elias, 3:5 Ramanantsoa, Gabriel, 3:41 Ranavalona I, 3:38–39 Ranavalona, Mada, 3:200, 3:203 margin . See Witwatersrand Rand (currency of South Africa), 3:88 (fig.) African Democratic Assembly (ADR), Burkina Faso, 1:99 Togolese People's Assembly (RPT), 4:94 Ratsimilaho, 3:38 Ratsiraka, Didier, 3 : 41, 42 Rawlings, Jerry J., 2:96, 3:203–4 Raya people, 2:36 Red Hand, 4:134 The Reds (SFIO), 4:14 Reform programs, 1:199–201 Refugees, 3 :204–6 (Fig.), 4:136 camps of, 4:44 (Fig.) in Djibouti, 1:220 Hutu, 3:219 (Fig.) from Rwanda, 3:217

Le Respect du Roi (Camara Laye), 1:114 Regional Organizations, 2:100 Aid Organizations, 2:99, 100, 149 Religion and Ritual, 3:206–10. See also Ethnic Groups and Identity; Festivals and Carnivals of Africans in America, 1:208–9 of Ancient Egypt, 2:11–12 Animal Symbolism in, 3:210 Animal Worship, 1:32 Body Painting as Part, 1:87 Christianity in Africa, 1:132–36 in building process, 1:55 dance in, 1:188 elements of, 3:207–9 (illustrated) burial, 1:191–93 and Galawdevos, 2:83 the Hausa, 2:113 health and , 2:115 initiation rites, 2:158-59 Islam, 2:162-65 Judaism, 2:174 and royalty, 2:189 Mami Wata, 3:56-57 marriage, 2:158 masks used in, 1:65 missions and missionaries, 3:81 –84 (illustrated) in modern Egypt, 2:15, 16 personal identity and 1:192 practices and prohibitions, 3:209–10 prophetic movements, 3:187–92 (illustrated) and rank of leaders, 1:147 respect for Elders in, 1:6 Roots of Colonial Education in, 2:5 Royal, 2:61 Sins in, 4:79–80 Spirit Possession, 4:60–61 Therapeutic, 2:117, 118 of Tunisia, 4:126 Vodun , 4:139–40 Religious leaders Kimbangu, Christianity, 2:187 Kimpa Vita, Antonianism, 2:187–88 Mahdi, Islam, 3:44 Maranke, Apostolic Church of John Maranke, 3:61 Tutu, Anglican, 4:126 –27 Umar, Islam, 4:133–34 RENAMO (National Resistance Movement of Mozambique), Mozambique, 3:102 René, France Albert, 4:18 Reptiles, 4:148 Republic of the Congo . See Congo (Brazzaville) Research, African, 1:4

Resettlement of Africans, 1:210–11 resources, redistribution of, 1:199 respect for age and, 1:6 for elders, 1:144, 145 (illust.) Réunion, 1:163, 3:211 Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ), Sierra Leone, 4:24, 25 Rhodes, Cecil John, 1:5, 159, 2:185, 3:31, 3:212, 4:59, 172 Rhodesia, 1:92, 4:53, 172 Rhodesian Front (RF), 4:172 Rhythms, Dance, 1:188, 189 Rice, 1:10,13, 3:40 (illust.), 42 Riddles and Proverbs, 3:192–93 Rif Tribe, 1: 84 Rift Valley, 2:179, 180, 4:83, 163 Rites of Initiation, 2:158–59 Puberty, 94 Ritual Offerings, 2:174 Rituals. See Religion and ritual River blindness, 1:214, 216 (illustrated) Robeson, Paul, 1:136 Rock art, 1:19, 47, 67, 3:212–14 Roman Africa, 3:214–15 Roman Catholic Church , 1:133, 135-36, 156, 209, 2:38 Roman Empire, Africa in, 1:19, 122, 2:15-16, 3:214-15 Roman Scriptures, 4:160 Rome, Antiquity, 1 : 56 Rotimi, Ola, 4:88 Rotse people, 2:51 Royal dances, 1:187–88 Royal rituals, 2:61 Royal slaves, 4:13 Rozwi people, 1:55 Rwanda people, 2:52 Rwanda -Urundi, 1:105, 156 Rundi people, 2:52 housing in rural areas, 2:138 work systems in, 2:197 spread of AIDS to, 1:14 Rwanda, 1:105, 3:215–21 (map ) Economy of, 3:220 Ethnic rivalries in, 1:107 Genocide in, 2:92 Geography of, 3:215–16 History of, 3:216–20 (illus.) Peoples and cultures of, 3:220–21 Rwanda (Rwanda) People, 2:52 Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR), 3:218, 220 Rwandese Alliance of National Unity (RANU), 3:218

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Index

S Sacred Hope (Neto), 3:131 victims, 2:174, 3:209 Sadat, Anwar al-, 2:19, 3:104, 125, 4:1 Safaris, 4:99 Sahara desert, 1:196, 4:1–4 (fig.) Algerian, 1:18 cultivation in, 1:12 formation of, 1:19 herds in, 2:124 historical climate change in, 1:45, 47, 2:124 rock paintings of, 1: 67 Tuareg people, 4:120 Zones of, 2:2 Sahara Atlas Mountains, 1:18, 71 Sahel, 1:196–98, 3:166, 4:2, 4:4–5 French colonialism in, 1:162 and slavery, 4:36 in the Sudan, 4:65–66 as a zone of the Sahara, 2:2 Sahir, Murad, 1:204 Saïbou, Ali, 3:133 Sa'id ibn Sultan, 4:5, 4:91 Saint Anthony, 1:179 Saint Frumentius of Tire, 2:38 Church of Saint George (Ethiopia), 1:133 (illustrated) Saint Helena, 4:5–6 Saint Louis, Senegal, 4:16 (illustrated) St. Paul's Cathedral (Abidjan), 1:1 Salad Hassan, Abdikassim, 4:44 Saladin, 1:110, 2:16 Salazar, Antonio, 3:101 Sallah-Feast, 2:61 Salt, 3:87 , 89, 4:2 salt lakes, 1:17 salt marsh ecosystems, 2:1 Samba, Chéri, 4:6 Samba wa Mbimba-N'zinga-Nuni Masi, David, 4:6 Sambizanga (film), 1:138 Samburu people, 4: 118 (illust.) San people, 2:186, 3:125 Sande societies, 2:158, 4:10–11 Sanhá, Malan Bacai, 2:111 Sankara, Thomas, 1:101 Sankoh, Foday, 4: 25 Sankore Mosque, 4:90 Santería, 1:208, 209 Sanyang, Kukoi Samba, 2:85 São Tomé and Príncipe, 1:166, 4:7–8, 4:30 Sara, 2:52 Sarafina!, 4 :89 Sarakole people, 2:53 Sarbah, John Mensah, 4:8–9 Sassou-Nguesso, Denis, 1:171

250

Savannas, 1:11, 17, 25, 26, 2:3–4 (illust.) Sawyer, Amos, 3:11 Sayfuwu Dynasty, 1:90 Scarification, 1:87 Scarlet Song (Bâ), 3:28 Schistosomiasis , 1:214 school art, 1:64 colonial, 2:6–7 Islamic, 2:7, 9 Muslim, 1:39 (illust.) segregation in, 2:6 Schreiner, Olive, 3:24, 4:9 Schweitzer , Albert, 3:83 "Scramble" for Africa, 1:94-95, 153, 162, 163, 2:55 Sculpture, 1:62-64 (illust.), 182, 183 Seaports, 4:109-10 Seasons , 1:112-13, 2:69 secret societies, 1:130, 2:158, 3:209, 4:10-11 segregation. See also Apartheid in Colonial Cities, 1:141 Education, 2:6–7 Sembène, Ousmane, 4:11 Semetic Language Group, 2:203 Semi-Deserts, 2:1–2 Kalahari Desert, 2:176–77 (illust.) in the Namib desert, 2:1 in the Sahara desert, 4:1–4 Sahel, 4:4–5 Senegal, 4:11–17 (map) (illust.) classes of slaves in, 4:13 confederation with Gambia, 2:85 Dakar, capital of, 1:187 applied arts, 1:68 Diagne, politicians in, 1:202–3 economy of, 4:15 as French colony, 1:162 geography of, 4:11–12 history and government of, 4:12–15 as part of French West Africa, 2:76 peoples and cultures of, 4:16, 17 Senghor, President of, 4:17–18 Senegal River Development Organization, 2:161 Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS ), 4:15 Senegambia, 2:85, 4:12–13 Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 3:25, 130, 4:14, 4:17–18 Sennar Dam, 2:161 Senufo, 1:65 , 2 :52, 171 Septimius Severus, 3:214, 215 bondage, 1:144, 145 Sesotho language, 3:6 sentences, ages, 1:7, 8

Language Setswana, 3:175, 176 settlements early European, 2:55 early urban, 2:126 villages, 2:102–3 West African trade, 4:144–45 Sèvi Iwa, 1:208 sexuality, 2:89–90 sexual Communicable Diseases (STDs), 1:14, 217 Seychelles, 1:157, 158, 4:18–19 Shaaban, Robert, 3:21, 4:19 Shagari, Shehu, 3:144 Shaka Zulu, 1:211, 3 :119, 4:20, 4:58, 176 Shamans, 2:115 Shantytowns, 1:139, 142, 2:139 (illust.), 140 Share Contracts, 2:199–200 Shari'a, 2:209 - 10, 4:69 Sharmarke, Abdirashid Ali, 4:42 Sharp, Granville, 4:21 Sharpeville (South Africa), 3:57-58, 4:51 (illus.), 52, 139 Shawn (instrument), 3:113 Sheep, 1:33, 4:42 Shells, 3:87, 89 Shembe, Isaiah, 4:20 Alternate Cultivation, 1:11-12 Shi People, 3:200 Shisima, 4:63 Shluh Tribe, 1:84 Shona, 2:47, 52, 3:204, 4:20–21 Shrimp, 3:103 Shrines, 1:194, 218, 2:189 Sidamo, 2:36, 53 Siddis, 1:204 Street Radio, 3:182 Sierra Leone, 4:21–27 (map) as a British colony, 1:156 economy of, 4:26 founding of, 1:210 Freetown, capital of, 2:73–74 geography of, 4:21 history and government of , 4:21–26 (illust.) masks of, 1:65 on misery index, 1:199 peoples and cultures of, 4:26–27 secret societies in, 4:10, 11 Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), 4: 24 Simba: The King of Beasts (Movie), 1:136 Simbi and the Satyr of the Dark Jungle (Tutuola), 4:127 Singobile Mabhena, 3:129 Sinkofa (Movie), 1:138 Sins, 4:79-80 Sirocco, 1:18

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Index Sissala People, 2:97 Sisulu, Walter, 4:52 Sithole, Ndabaningi, 4:173 Skeleton Coast, Namibia, 3:123 (illust.) Slash-and-burn agriculture, 1:222, 2:72 Slave Coast, 4:30 Slave trade, 4:27–34 (map) (illust.), 4:103, 104. See also Diaspora, African and Accra, 1:1 in Angola, 1:27–28 Arab, 2:130 Atlantic, 2:129 in the Central African Republic, 1:124 and Christian missionaries, 1:133, 135, 3:28 of Correia and Nozolini, 1:180 end, 4:32–33 in Ghana, 2:94 history of, 2:129–31 (illust.) and independence movements, 2:152–53 associated with ivory trade, 2:171 in Mozambique, 3:99, 100 and Nigeria, 3:140–41 pre-colonial, 1:224 regional peculiarities, 4:27–32 in Senegal , 4:12–13 ships used in, 1:205 (illustrated), 207, 2:130 (illustrated), 4:31 (illustrated) and Sierra Leone, 4:21–23 in Zanzibar, 4:168 slavery, 4 :34–39 Abolition of, 4:32–33 and African Missions, 3:82 Characteristics of Africans, 4:37–39 (map) Classes of, 4:13 Forms of , 4:35–36 and Negritude, 3: 130 raids, slave, 4:36 Sierra Leone as a colony of refuge, 4:21–22 in Sudan, 4:70 slaves as currency, 3:87 in social structures, 1:144 sleeping sickness, 1:32, 213, 2:127 Smith , Ian, 3:104, 4:53, 172, 173 Smuggling, 1:80 Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 2:176, 4:39, 4:59 So Long a Brief (Bâ), 3:28 Sobhuza I and II , 4:39–40, 4:58, 78 football, 4:61, 63 social classes. See also Class Structure and Box Dance as an Expression of, 1:187–88 and Funeral Form, 1:192

Social customs of eating, 2:69 and family life, 2:59 in hunting and gathering societies, 2:150-51 influence of Islam on, 2:165 taboo, 4:80 dancing in social life, 1:187-90 festivals and carnivals, 2:61–62 (illustrated) Mami Wata, 3:56–57 music and song, 3:106–11 (illustrated) role of women in, 4:155 sports and leisure, 4:61–64 (figs. ) Socialism as a Development Model, 1:199 in Egypt, 3:125 in Mali, 3:53 in Senegal, 4:14 in Somalia, 4:43 in Tunisia, 1:95–96 Socialist Destour Party, 4:123 Société Africaine de Culture, 1:212 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG), 3:198 Soglo, Nicephore, 1:82 Sokoto Caliphate, 3:133, 141, 145, 4:137 Solar Energy, 2:22 Somalia, 4:40–46 (map) Arab influence in, 1:38 economy of, 4:45–46 establishment of, 1:158 geography of, 4:40–41 history and government of, 4:41–44 (Fig. ) Islam in, 2:162–63 Literature in, 3:21 Mogadishu, capital of, 3:85–86 Peoples and cultures of, 4:46 Somalia Italiana, 4:42 Somali language, 3:19 , 20 Somali National Theatre Company, 4:88 (illustrated) Somali people, 2:36, 53 Somaliland, 1:164, 4:43, 44 Song. See music and song Songhai language, 2:204 Songhai (Songrai) people, 2:53, 3:56, 137 Muhammad I, ruler of, 1:70 of Niger, 3:133 Sudanic Empires, 4:73 Sunni Ali , Rulers of, 4:76 and Timbuktu, 4:90 Soninke (Sarakole) people, 2:53, 3:159

Sorcery. See Witchcraft and Sorcery Sorghum, 1:9 Soso people, 2:109 Sotho (Basotho) people, 2:53 South Africa, 4:46–56 (map) and Afrikaner Republics, 1:5 AIDS in, 1:14 Apartheid in , 1:36–37, 1:147 Black Consciousness Movement in, 1:86 and Botswana, 1:92 British Colonialism in, 1:158 Cape Colored People, 1:119 Cape Town, 1:120 De Klerk, President of , 1:37, 1:195–96 economy of, 4:54, 55 energy resources in, 2:21 ethnic identity debate in, 2:46 geography of, 4:46–48 health and education of, 4:55–56 higher education in, 2:9 History and government of, 4:48–54 (image) Human ancestor fossils discovered in, 1:51 Johannesburg, largest city of, 2:172–73 (image) Kruger, political leader in , 2:196 Lutuli, political leader in, 3:34–35 Mandela, President of, 3:57–58 Namibia, reign of, 3:122 paintings of, 1:67 peoples and cultures of, 4:56 popular culture of , 3:181– 82 Schreiner, author in, 4:9 Segregation in, 2:6, 134 Shembe, church leaders in, 4:20 Smuts, prime ministers of, 4:39 and unions, 4:134–35 Verwoerd, politicians in, 4:138– 39 Xhosa in, 4:161 Zulu in, 4:176–77 South African Congress of Trade Unions, 4:52 South African Indian Congress, 4:52 South African Native National Congress (SANNC) , 3:175 South African Party, 4th :48 South African Republic, 1:5 South West African People's Organization (SWAPO), 3:122, 161 Southern Africa. See also specific countries AIDS in, 1:14 Archeology and Prehistory of, 1:49 (map), 51–53 (fig.) British Colonies in, 1:158–59 Chinese in, 1:131 Climate of, 1:150

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Index countries included in, 1:51 decorative arts of, 1:68 ethnic groups and identity in, 1:74, 2:46–47 European settlements in, 2:55 history of, 4:56–59 (illust.) Islam Influence in, 2:128-29 Khoisan people in, 2:186-87 Law in, 2:213 Literature in, 3:22 Music of, 3:110-11 Ndebele people in, 3:129 Painting in, 1 :67 rock art in, 3:212–13 sculpture of, 1:64–65 Shona people in, 4:20–21 Southern African Development Community (SADC), 2:99, 100 Southern Rhodesia as a British colony, 1:158, 159 Central African Federation, 1:122–23 Southern Sahara, 1:162–63 South West Africa, 1:163–64 Soviet Union, 2:34,35, 3:129 Soweto Massacre, 4:52 Soybeans, 4:174 Soyinka, Wole, 3:23, 4:59–60, 4:89 Spanish Colonialism, 1:161, 166–67 of Equatorial Guinea, 2:24, 25 Western Sahara, 4:145–46 Spanish Guinea, 1:166 , 167 Spanish Sahara, 1: 166, 3:93 Speke, John Hanning, 1:103, 3:149, 4:116, 129 Possession by spirits, 3:210, 4:60–61, 4:87 spirits, 3:207 as causative agents of disease and remedies, 2:115-17 of dead, 1:192 and prophecy, 1:218 of forests, 2:73 in religions, 1:102 sport and recreation, 4:61-64 (illus. ) Sports Clubs, 4:62 Squatter Settlements, 2:139, 140 Stanley, Henry Morton, 1:174, 4:64, 4:115–17 (illust.) in Congo Free State, 1:155 and Emin Pasha, 2 :20 Exploration of the Congo River by, 1:178 and Kinshasa, 2:191–92 Livingstone and, 3:30–31 Definition of states, 2:104 Formation of, 2:130–31 Government/political systems of, 2 : 104-6

252

STDs. See STDs Steppes, 1:149 Stevens, Siaka, 4:24 Stone Age, 1:42, 43 The Stone Country (La Guma), 2:197 Storck, Henri, 1:136 The Story of an African Farm (Schreiner ), 3:24, 4:9 Strasser, Valentine, 4:24 Structural Adjustment Programs, 1:199–201 Study of Africa, 1:3–4 Sub-Saharan Africa Afro-Arab Relations in, 1:40 AIDS in, 1:14 Ancestral beliefs in, 1:194 Connections of ancient Egypt with, 2:12–14 Art of, 1:60 calendars in, 1:112–13 Christianity in, 1:132 Cities and urbanization in, 1:139–42 (illus. ) dance in, 1:188, 190 early exploration of, 1:3–4 staple foods in, 2:65–66 burial practices in, 1:191–92 Ibn Battuta's accounts of, 2:151 kingship in, 2:188 lack of written history in, 1:41 misery index status, 1:199 mountain ecosystems in, 2:2 precolonial trade in, 1:224 regional problems in, 2:99 subsistence agriculture, 1:26–27 succession, royal, 2:190 Sudan, 4th :64–71 (map) art of, 1:62–63, 67 British government in, 1:159, 160 economy of, 4:70–71 ethnic groups and identity in, 2 :40 geography of, 4:65– 66, 68 (illustrated) History and government of, 4:66–70 Islam in, 2:162 Khartoum, capital of, 2:186 Mahdi, religious leader in, 3:44 and the Nile, 3:148, 149 peoples and Cultures, 4:71 Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), 4:69 Sudanic Empires of Western Africa, 3:136–37, 4:72–74 (map) Sudanese, 2:36–37 Suez Canal, 1:154 (illust. ), 3:125, 4:74–75 British control over, 2:19 Egyptian holdings, 2:18 sale to Britain, 1:159 Sufism, 1:188, 4:75

Sukuma people, 1:67, 2:53 Sumanguru Kante, 4:76 Sundjata Keïta, 3:52, 58, 3:165, 4:73, 4:75-76 Sunni Ali, 3:52, 4:73, 4 :76 Sunni Muslims, 4:126 The Suns of Independence (Kourouma), 2:195, 3:25 Supreme Council for Sport in Africa, 4:63 Susenyos, 4:77 Susu People, 2:53 Swahili Coast Arab influence on, 1:37–38 origin of communities in, 1:50–51 Swahili language, 1:168, 2:44, 204, 206, 208, 3:19, 20, 24 Swahili people, 2:53, 184, 4: 77 decorative arts of, 1:68 first cities built by, 1:76 literature in, 3:21 music of, 3:110 Shaaban, writer of, 4:19 SWAPO. See South West African People's Organization Swati language, 4:79 Swazi people, 1:158–59, 2:53, 158 Swaziland, 4:77–79 as British colony, 1:158–59 as constitutional monarchy, 2:191 hereditary Rank in, 1:147 Sobhuza I and II, kings of, 4:39–40 swidden (slash and burn) agriculture, 1:222, 2:72 symbols and animal symbolism, 3:210 in architecture, 1:55 on currency, 3: 182 of Kings 2:104, 188-90, 189

T Taarab Music, 3:110 Tabarmar Kunya (Kano and Dan Gogo), 4:89 Taboo and Sin, 4:79–80 as a Cause of Disease, 2:118 Food, 2:69 Sexuality, 2:89 Tafari Benti, 2: 34 Tafawa Balewa, Abubakar, 4:81 Taitu, Empress, 1:3 Tales From a Troubled Land (Paton), 3:168 "Talking drum", 3:106 Tamacheq language, 4:120 Tananarive, 1:36 Tandja Mamadou , 3:134

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Index Tanganyika, 1:157–58, 3:45–46, 4:82–83 Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), 3:23, 163, 4:83 Tanzania, 4:81–85 (map) archaeological sites in , 1:49, 50 communal agriculture in, 1:13 Dar es Salaam, capital of, 1:190–91 economy and culture of, 4:84 ethnicity in, 2:44 founding of, 1:158 geography of, 4: 159; 81, 82, 84 (Fig.) History and government of, 4:82–83 Masks of, 1:66 Nyerere, President of, 3:163–64 Paintings of, 1:67 and Uganda, 4:130 Zanzibar as part of, 4:168 Taro, 1:9 Tassili and Ajer, Algeria, 3:214 Tattoos, 1:87 Taureg people, 1:84, 85 (illus.), 144 Taylor, Charles, 3:11, 4: 24 , 26 Tea, 1:10 Tea, Kingdom of, 1:169, 170 Tea Plateau, 1:172 Tekere, Edward, 4:173 Tekle, Afewerk, 2:38 Television and Radio, 3:201–2 (Figs. ); Tell Atlas Mountains, 1:17, 71 Temne people, 2:53, 4:21–22, 26 temples, 1:53–54 Tenerife, 1:119 Ternifine, Algeria, 1:44 territorial lines. See Boundaries in Africa Terrorism Act, 4:88 Theodore, 3:75, 4:85-86 Theodore II, 2:32-33 Textiles, 1:183, 4:94 Theater, 4:86-89 Thebes, Egypt, 2 :12 (Illustrated) There's Nothing Like You, Gérard Felix, 3:26 Things Fall Apart (Achebe), 1:2, 3:23 Thiong'o, The Thing of, 2:208 Thonga (Tsonga) people, 2: 53 Through the Dark Continent (Stanley), 4:64 Thuku, Harry, 4:89 Thwawrat Sahib al-Himar (al-Din), 4:89 Tiger People, 2:35, 53 Tigrinya, 1:23-24 Tijaniyya, 1999; 4:133 Timbuktu, 1:139, 3:53 (illustrated), 60, 4:90, 4:116 Time, 1:112-13 Time (film), 1:138

Time of the Butcherbird (La Guma), 2:197 Tin Towns, 1:139 Tinubu, Madame, 4:91 Tippu Tip, 4:91 Tiv (Munshi) people, 2:53 Tobruk, Libya, 3:13 Togo, 4 :92–96 (map) economy of, 4:95 (fig.) as a French colony, 1:162 geography of, 4:92 as a German colony, 1:163, 164 history and government of, 4:92–95 Olympio , President of, 3:165 Peoples and Cultures of, 4:96 Togoland, 4:92–93 Tolbert, William, 3:10 Tomatoes, 1:10 Tombalbaye, François-Ngarta, 1:127, 4:97 Tombs, 1 :53–54 of Malagasy, 3:39 Muslims, 4:3 (illust.) Tonga people, 2:53 Too Late the Phalarope (Paton), 3:168 Tools associated with gender, 2:88 in Stone Age, 1 :42 Toro, Kingdom, 2:175 Torwa, 4:171 Touré, Amadou Toumani, 3:54 Touré, Samori, 4:98–99 Touré, Sékou, 1:169, 2:108–9, 3:149, 4 :98–99 Tourism, 2:84, 4:99–100 Towards Colonial Freedom (Nkrumah), 3:149 Toys, 1:130 Trade, 4:100–6. See also slave trade in the Akan region, 1:15 in Alexandria, 1:16–17 in ancient Aksum, 1:16 in ancient Cairo, 1:110 in Bénin, 1:80 in colonial times, 1:152, 4: 104 Development of , 2:125–27 in East Africa, 4:5 gold, 3:78 Islamic influence on historical, 2:127–29 ivory, 2:171–72 postcolonial, 4:102 (illustr.), 105–6 pre-colonial, 1:224-25, 4:100-4 in the Sahara desert, 4:2-4 and Sudanic empires, 4:73 and Suez Canal, 4:74-75 and Swahili, 4:77 and Timbuktu, 4:90

Unions and Trade Associations, 4:134–35 West African Trade Settlements, 4:144–45 in Zanzibar, 4:168 Trade Routes, 2:83, 3:155 Traders Correia, Guinea-Bissau, 1:180 Tippu Tip, 4 :91 Women as , 2:88 Transport, 4:106–11 (map), For specific countries see under Economy Air, 4:108–9 History of, 4:106–8 Railways, 4:110–11 (Fig.) Seaports, 4 :109, 110 Transvaal, 1:5, 126 Traoré, Moussa, 3:53 Travel and Explore, 4:111–17 (map) (fig.). See also Maps and Mapping Travelers, 2:133 Barth German, 1:77 Ibn Battuta, Arab, 2:151 Kingsley, British, 2:191 Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (Barth), 1:77 Travels in the West Africa (Kingsley), 2:191, 4:116 Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (Bruce), 4:115 Treaty of Addis Ababa, 2:33 Treaty of Paris, 1:158 Tribalism, 2:42–44, 4:117–19 (illus.) Trichinosis, 1:217 Tricksters, 3:117 Tripoli, Libya, 1:140 (illus.), 3:15 (illus.) Tristan da Cunha, 4:5–6 Tropical Forests, 1 :11, 2:4, 71 Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 4:54 Trypanosomiasis, 1:213 Tsetse flies, 1:32, 2:127, 3:138, 4:103–4 Tshombe, Moïse Kapenda, 1:175 , 4 :119 Tsiranana, Philibert, 3:41 Tsonga, 2:44, 53 Tswana, 1:93, 2:54, 177 Tu Huan, 4:113 Tuareg, 2:54, 4:120 Tubman, William Vacanarat Shadrach, 3: 9–10, 10 (illustrated), 4:120 Tukulor people, 2:54, 109 Tumbuka people, 2:54 Tunis, Tunisia, 3:152 (illustrated) Tunisia, 4:121–26 (map) Bidonvilles in , 1:139

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Index Bourguiba, President of, 1:95–96, 1:161 (illust.) Economy of, 4:124–25 as a French colony, 1:160, 161 History and government of, 4:121–23 Peoples and cultures of , 4:124–26 (illustrated) and Roman Africa, 3:214, 215 urban population in, 1:142 Turabi, Hassan al-, 4:70 Turkana people, 2:43 Tutsi people, 1:104– 7, 2:92, 3:216-21 Tutu, Desmond Mpilo, 4:52, 4:126-27 Tutu, Osei, 1:69 Tutuola, Amos, 3:23, 4:127 Twa people, 1:104 , 105, 3:196, 217 twins, carved figures, 1:61

U Ubangi language, 2:204 Uganda, 4:127–33 (map) Amin Dada, dictator of, 1:24 as British colony, 1:157 economy of, 4:132–33 ethnic division in, 2:43 genocide in , 2:141 Geography of, 4:128 History and Government of, 4:128–32 (Fig.) Museveni, President of, 3:105 Mutesa II, Ruler of Bugandan, 3:115 Obote, President of, 3:164 Peoples and cultures of, 4:133 and Rwanda, 3:218 Uganda People's Congress, 3:164 Uganda People's Party, 4:130 Umar ibn Sa'id Tal, 4:133–34 Umayyads, 4:121 Sizwe People's Congress (MK ) ; , 3:58, 4:52, 53 People's Party, 4:69 UN. See United Nations Unemployment, 1:142 UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association), 2:87 Maroccan Labor Union. See Industrial and Commercial Union Union of National Radio and Television Organizations of Africa (URTNA), 3:202 Unions and Trade Associations, 4:134–35 UNITA. See National Union for the Total Independence of Angola United Arab Republic, 3:1

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United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), 2:94 United National Independence Party (UNIP), Zambia, 2:178, 4:164 United Nations (UN), 4:135–37, 4:143 Annan, Secretary General of, 1: 35 and Belgian Congo, 1:174–75, 4:119 and Burundi, 1:107 educational website by, 2:5 misery index published by, 1:199 peacekeepers by, 2:100 sanctions against South Africa by , 1:92 and Somalia , 4:43 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 2:141 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 3:206 African populations of the United States in, 1:207 and Belgian Congo, 1:174–75 in Zaire, 1:175 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN), 2:141 Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 2:87 University of Nigeria, 1:64 Upper Congo, 4:91 Upper Volta, 1:98–100, 162, 2:76 Uranium, 3 :77 (map) Urban areas. See also Cities and Urbanization Effect on Ethnic Groups, 4:119 Housing in, 2:139–40 (illustrated) Urban development, 2:125–27 Uthman dan Fodio, 2:78, 3:21, 139, 189, 4 : 137 Utubora the Farmer (Shaaban), 4:19

V Van Riebeeck, Jan, 4:57, 4:137–38 vandals, 1:19 Vautier, René, 1:137 vegetables, 1:10, 2:66 vegetation. See ecosystems; Geography; Plants Venda people, 2:54 Venn, Henry, 1:134, 3:82 Vernacular Literature Bureaus, 3:193 Verwoerd, Hendrik Frensch, 4:51, 4:138–39 Victoria Falls, 4:162 Vieira, João, 2:111, 4:15 The Village Witch Doctor and Other Stories (Tutuola), 4:127 Villages, 2:102-4

Violence, 2:100. See also Genocide and Violence and Gaining Independence, 2:155 between Hutu and Tutsi, 1:105–7 in Algeria, 1:22 in Rwanda, 2:141, 3:219 viral diseases, 1:214–15 Vodun, 4 : 139–40 volcanoes, 4:7 Volta River, 2:93 voodoo, 1:208, 4:139–40 voting rights in Ivory Coast, 2:169, 170 after World War II, 2:75 in South Africa, 4:58

W Wadai People, 4:141 Wade, Abdoulaye, 4:15 WaKamba People, 2:50 Wali People, 2:97 A Walk in the Night (La Guma), 2:197 Wanke, Daouda Mallam, 3:134 Warfare, 4 :140–43, 4:156–59 as the cause of famine, 2:148 nature of, 4:140–41 in Rwanda, 3:218–19 and sources of conflict in modern Africa, 4:142–43 (illus.)" Women's War," 2:89 Warrior Slaves, 4:13 Wars of Grañ, 2:32 Washington, Booker T., 1:204 Watchtower Movement, 3:46, 192 Water Supply, 1:200 (illust.) Watu wa Mungu- movement, 3:190 wealth, power and 2:106 weather. See Climate Wedraogo, Naba, 1:99 West Africa Rice Development Association, 1:13 West African Countries and Peoples (Horton), 2:137 West African Studies (Kingsley), 2:191 Western Africa. See also specific countries AIDS in, 1:14 Akan region, 1:15 ancestral histories in, 1:194 Arab influence on, 1:37–38 Archeology and prehistory of, 1:43 (map), 46–48 Beadwork in , 1 :181 British colonies in, 1:156–57 Chinese in, 1:131 cities in, 1:139 climates in, 1:149–50

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Index colonial architecture in, 1:59 included countries in, 1:46 decorative arts in, 1:68 energy resources in, 2:21 ethnic groups in, 2:41–42, 113–14 European settlements in, 2:55 French colonialism in , 1:162 Islam in, 2:127–28, 163, 164 king lists of, 1:113 literature in, 3:23–25 masks of, 1:64 music of, 3:107–8 Niger and Delta, 3: 136–37 folk culture of, 3:182–84 rice cultivation in, 1:13 sculpture of, 1:62–64 (illus.) secret societies in, 4:10–11 slave trade in, 4: 29–30 Sudanese empires, 4: 72–74 (map) commercial settlements in, 4:144–45 urban growth in, 1:141–42 Wolof peoples in, 4:154 Yoruba peoples in, 4:161 Western Right, 2:210, 213–14 Western Sahara, 4:145–46 Wheat, 1:10 Whispering Songs, 3:107 White Fathers, 3:82 White Nile River, 1:103 White Volta River, 2:92–93 WHO (World Health Organization), 2:120 Wild Foods, 2: 66 Wild and Wild Parks, 4:146–50 (map) (ill.) Wine, 2:68 Victory on a Continent (film), 1:136 Witbooi, Hendrik, 4:150–51 Witch Doctors, 4:152 (illustrated ) Witchcraft and Wizardry, 3:208–9, 4:140, 4:151–54 (illustrated) Witch Hunts, 1:81 Witwatersrand (Rand), 2:172, 173, 4:47 Wolof (Jolof) People, 2: 54, 86, 4:16, 4:154 women and work (carpenters), 4:9 women in Africa, 4:154–56 and alternating family structure, 2:59–60 control over older men, 1:6, 8 educational network for Muslims, 1:71 related to Islamic law, 2:165 literature of, 3:26–27 (illustrated) Mami Wata, representation of, 3:56 in Mozambique, 3:98 nationalism and, 3:127 poor health care for, 2:119

Respect of age in, 1:6 rights of, 4:123 as rulers, 2:188 in Senegal, 4:16, 17 in sports, 4:62 (illust.), 63 travelers, 4:116 "Women's War", 2 :89 wood, fuel, 2:21–22, 24 World Bank, 3:129, 204, 4:105, 136 "World Beat" music, 3:111 World Health Organization (WHO), 2:120 World Wars I and II, 4 :156–59 (map) (fig.) Éboué's work during, 1:221–22 Egypt in, 2:18 French Equatorial Africa in, 2:75 Gikuyu in, 2:180 music, influence on, 3 :108 nationalism, Effect on, 3:126-27 The Wretched of the Earth (Fanon), 2:60 Writing Systems, 3:76, 4:159-60 Bible Translations, 3:83 Choice of Language in, 2:208 Wunlit Covenant, 4:69-70

X Xhosa language, 2:204 Xhosa (Xosa) people, 2:54, 3:150, 166, 4:161 cattle sacrifice by, 1:195 battle for land, 4:58 Nongqawuse, prophet of, 3:150 !Xo people , 1:94, 2:186 xylophones, 3:111, 113, 114

Y Yakan movement, 3:190 Yaméogo, Maurice, 1:99 Yams, 1:9 Yao, 2:54, 3:163 Yaoundé, Cameroon, 1:114 Yatenga, 1:99 Yaure, 1:66 (Fig. ) Years, 1:112–13 Yellow Fever, 1:215 Yetmgeta, Zerihum, 2:38 Yhombi-Opango, Joachim, 1:171 Yohannes IV, 2:33, 3:75 Yoruba Folktales (Tutuola), 4:127 Yoruba Language, 3:83, 139-40 Yoruba (Nago) people, 2:54, 4:161 afterlife beliefs of, 1:192 art of, 1:60, 61 city-states of, 1:139 Johnson, historian of, 2:174

Literature in, 3:21–22 masks of, 1:65 of Nigeria, 3:139–40, 143, 145 priest dances of, 1:188 sculpture of, 1:63–64 Shango festival of, 2:61 tutuola, Novelist of, 4:127 and Vodun, 4:139 Yorubaland, 3:139–40 Youlou, Fulbert, 1:170 Young Tunisians, 4:123 Yusaf, Moulay, 3:105

Z Zafy, Albert, 3:41-42 Zaire, 1:156, 169, 172-73. See also Congo (Kinshasa) Lumumba, Prime Minister of, 3:32 Mobutu, President of, 3:85 and Rwanda, 3:219 Zairianization, 1:177 Zambezi River, 4:162 Zambia, 4:163–67 (map) Economy of, 4:165–67 (illust.) Ethnic groups in, 2:45 founding of, 1:159 geography of, 4:163 history and government of, 4:164–65 Kaunda, President of, 2:178 Lenshina , Alice, religious leader in, 3:3 Lusaka, capital of, 3:33–34 (Fig.) Masks of, 1:66 Peoples and cultures of, 4:167 Zanj, 1:38, 4:30 ZANU. See Zimbabwe African National Union Zanzibar, 1:139, 4:168–69 Barghash, Sultan of, 1:77 as a British colony, 1:157, 158 Sa'id ibn, Sultan of, 4:5, 4:168 and Tanganyika , 4:83 Tippu Tip, trade in, 4:91 Zara Jacob, 3:20, 4:169 Zebu, 1:32 Zenawi, Meles, 2:35 Zerbo, Saye, 1:100 Zerma people, 1:6 Zerma- Songhai people, 3:136 Zeroual, Liamine, 1:22 Zhu languages, 2:205 Zimbabwe, 4:169–76 (map) economy of, 4:174 (illustrated), 175 education of, 1:159 geography of , 4:170 Great Zimbabwe ruins in, 1:41, 52 Harare, capital of, 2:112–13

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Index History and Government of, 4:171–75 Mugabe, President of, 3:104–5 Mutapa, Dynasty of, 3:114–15 Mzilikazi, Founder of Ndebele, 3:119 Paintings of, 1:67 Peoples and Cultures of , 4:175, 176 Shona peoples, 4:20-21

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Simbabwe African National Union (ZANU), 3:104, 4:172, 173 Simbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), 3:104, 105, 4:172, 173 Simbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), 4:173 Zionist Church, :191–92 Zubayr, Rabbi, 1:90

Zulu language, 2:204 Zulu people, 1:75 (illustrated), 158–59, 2:54, 190 (illustrated), 3:166, 4:176–77 and Colenso, 1:151 ethnic identity among, 2:44, 46 Shaka Zulu, ruler of, 4:20 and support of IFP, 4:53–54 Zululand, 1:1